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Regular Articles |
§
From the Department of Dermatology,*
Charité, Humboldt-University, Berlin, Germany; the Department of
Dermatology,
University Hospital Eppendorf,
University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany; the Departments of
Dermatology
and Genetics &
Development,§
Columbia University, New York,
New York; and The Jackson Laboratory,¶
Bar Harbor, Maine
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Though the structure of the hr gene in human and mouse has been clarified, the biological function(s) of the corresponding protein remain to be elucidated.10,11 The hr gene encodes a putative single zinc-finger transcription factor, which is expressed in the HF, epidermis, and brain.9,12,13 This locus maps to mouse Chromosome 1414 and to human Chromosome 8p, in a region syntenic with mouse Chromosome 14.9 The hairless mutation in HRS/J mice is caused by stable integration of a modified polytropic retrovirus into intron 6 of the hr gene, and subsequent abnormal splicing.15 In humans, the recessively inherited type of complete hair loss over the entire body is associated with a variety of missense, nonsense, and deletion mutations in the hr gene.9,16-18
Our previous study of the fully developed hairless phenotype in adult 3- to 4-month-old HRS/J hr/hr mice had suggested that the hr mutation disrupts the integrity of selected functional tissue units in most HF compartments, including the isthmus and hair bulb region as well as the dermal papilla. This prompted us to speculate that HF disintegration in hr/hr mice might result from a disturbance in apoptosis and/or an impairment of cell adhesion,10,19 which remains to be demonstrated. Also, these studies did not address the earliest stages of hr phenotype development in neonatal hr/hr mice undergoing their first synchronized, spontaneous HF regression (catagen).1,3,20,21
Therefore, in the current study, we have systematically characterized the chronology of HF transformation in HRS/J hr/hr hairless mutant mice by routine histology, histochemistry, and immunohistology throughout the period of postnatal skin development when the macroscopic phenotype is first evident and when the hair shafts are shed (ie, during days 14–20 postpartum). This was compared to age-matched, heterozygous +/hr mice, which develop and maintain an apparently normal fur coat. We demonstrate that the development of the hr/hr phenotype is an exquisitely regulated process, whose precise temporal and cell-type-specific sequence of events strongly suggests critical roles for the hr gene product in normal HF regression, namely in the control of intrafollicular apoptosis and tissue integrity during catagen.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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HRS/J hairless mice were purchased from the Laboratory of
Biomodels (Moscow District, Russia) and were bred at the animal
department of the Severtsov Institute, Moscow. Mice were housed in
community cages (1 male and 3 females) under standard conditions
(12-hour light periods, water and mouse chow ad libitum).
The pups were obtained by mating homozygous (hr/hr)
males to heterozygous (+/hr) females, because homozygous
(hr/hr) females are poor mothers.11,22
After day 14 postpartum (pp) (ie, the onset of periorbital hair loss),
hr/hr and +/hr pups were selected by their
unequivocal phenotypic differences in macroscopic fur appearance
(Figure 1A)
, which were also confirmed by
routine histology.
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. Gross observations were performed daily to document the
hair loss. We generated a tissue bank of skin samples including seven
time points (daily sampling) with 6 homozygous
(hr/hr) and 4 heterozygous (+/hr)
age-matched mice of both sexes, derived from 3–4 different litters,
for each time point. Because the changes in HF structure during the
hair loss occur very rapidly, and to characterize the sequence of
pathological events in hr/hr mice more precisely, all skin
samples were harvested from the same defined region (1.0 x 1.2
cm) of upper back skin (Figure 1C)
. The following statements on the
chronology of hair loss and on the corresponding stages of HF
transformation in hr/hr refer to this region of the
integument. Because heterozygous mutants also display some HF
abnormalities later in postnatal life, including spontaneous patches of
alopecia after the third month of life (Panteleyev and Paus,
unpublished observation), only those parameters of the first catagen
transition of the +/hr mice were used for comparison with
hr/hr mice, which were histologically identical to normal
catagen development in C57BL/6J mice.18,23 All skin samples were harvested parallel to the dorsal midline to obtain longitudinal sections through the HF24 and were processed for routine histology, immunohistochemistry, TUNEL stain, and histochemistry as described below. Skin samples of +/hr mice of corresponding ages were used for comparison, after shaving their hair-bearing skin with a cordless trimmer.
Skin Sections, Histochemistry, and Immunohistology
Skin samples were frozen in liquid nitrogen immediately after harvesting and were embedded in Tissue-Tek (Miles, Elkhart, IN) medium for storage at -70°C as described.21 Air-dried 6-µm cryostat sections were collected on silane-coated slides, fixed in cold acetone (-20°C) for 10 minutes, and then processed for neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM)19,25 and interleukin-1 receptor type 1 (IL-1R1)26 immunohistochemistry. Alkaline phosphatase (AP) activity was visualized according to the staining protocol routinely used in AP or APAAP immunohistochemistry, but without the customary blocking of endogenous AP by levamisole.27 Both AP activity and NCAM expression were used as sensitive markers for dermal papilla (DP) fibroblasts.25,27
TUNEL/Hoechst 33242/Ki-67 Triple Stain
TdT-mediated dUTP-digoxigenin DNA nick end-labeling was performed using the commercially available ApopTag In Situ Apoptosis Detection Kit (Oncor, Gaithersburg, MD) on formalin-fixed (10%) 10-µm cryostat sections of skin samples according to the manufacturer's protocol. This was combined with Ki-67 immunodetection as a proliferation marker, using a rabbit antiserum (1:100; Dianova, Hamburg, Germany), followed by an incubation with goat-anti-rabbit TRITC-labeled IgG (Jackson Immunoresearch, West Grove, PA; 1:200, 37°C, 1 hour), and a consequent nuclear counterstain by Hoechst 33342 dye (10 µg/ml) (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) as previously described.23 TUNEL-positive (apoptotic) and Ki-67+ (proliferating) cells were detected with a fluorescence microscope (Zeiss), using the appropriate filters.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Visible hair loss in hr/hr mutant pups began at day 14
pp in the periorbital region and on the forelimbs, while the rest of
the integument still showed a normal hair pattern (Figure 1A)
. One day
later, two zones of naked skin around the eyes fused and formed the
front of hair shedding that subsequently progressed in a cranio-caudal
direction (Figure 1, B and C)
. This alopecia front was sharply
demarcated, and there was no zone of diffuse alopecia interspersed
between the completely naked skin and the macroscopically still normal
fur coat. At the age of 3 weeks, hr/hr animals lost their
first hair coat completely, with the notable exception of the vibrissae
(see Figure 1B
), whereas +/hr mice retained a
normal-appearing hair coat.
Histological Changes in hr Mouse Skin
Histology revealed that the most dynamic and most striking HF
transformations in the selected reference area (dorsal thoracic
midline; Figure 1C
) of hr/hr skin occurred during only two
days of postnatal development (on days 15–16). Some of these HF
transformations proceeded within hours and in a very narrow zone of the
progressing wave of hair shedding.
The key steps in the microscopic development of the hairless phenotype
could be divided into nine distinct, successive stages of HF
transformation and disintegration (Figure 2)
, which underlie the macroscopic
development of alopecia (Figure 1B)
. These stages were of different
length but were characterized by clearly defined, substantial changes
in HF morphology and in the other parameters defined below. It is
important to note that these HF transformations in hr/hr
skin differed from normal HF regression patterns at this stage of
postnatal mouse life, which transform anagen VI HF via catagen I-VIII
into telogen HF within about 2 days.20,21
Stage 1 of the
hairless phenotype formation was noted in the reference skin area of
hr/hr mice on day 14 pp, stages 2–4 on day 15, stages 4–7
on day 16, stages 6–8 on day 17, and stages 7–9 on day 18 (Figures 1B, 1C, and 2)
. By day 20, hr/hr mice had developed
total truncal alopecia (with the exception of the vibrissae), with the
characteristic presence of utriculi, numerous epithelial cell clusters
in the deep dermis (dermal cyst precursors), and the disappearance of
normal HF structures that is observed in adult hr/hr
mice.19
The individual pathological HF transformations in
hr skin are described below in detail and are summarized
schematically in Figure 2
.
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Stage 1
Pelage HF in hr/hr skin appear normal and are largely
indistinguishable from normal HF in their final stage of postnatal
development (resembling mature anagen VI HF).28
However, the hair canals in hr/hr skin are significantly
widened (Figure 3A)
compared to
+/hr littermates (Figure 3B)
. During subsequent stages of HF
transformation, hair canals gradually widen further, spreading downward
from the upper outer root sheath (ORS) portion adjacent to the
epidermis toward the orifice of the sebaceous gland (SG) duct (Figure 3C)
.
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The bulb of hr/hr HF is approximately of equal size and
shape as in stage 1. However, the hair shaft looses its connection with
the hair bulb. The follicle above the hair bulb narrows and becomes
curved, lacking its normal hair shaft content (Figure 3D)
.
Stage 3
The hair bulb shrinks abruptly and the proximal end of the hair shaft (near the subcutis) becomes loose. Unlike during normal catagen development,20,23 the proximal inner root sheath (IRS) does not shorten and therefore terminates below the end of the hair shaft.
Stage 4
The hair bulb gradually disappears and the DP has almost no
surrounding epithelium. However, the DP is still ensheathed by the
perifollicular connective tissue sheath. In contrast to normal catagen
development in +/hr mice (Figure 4A)
, the proximal end of the IRS in
hr/hr skin does not shorten. Instead, it coalesces around
the end of the hair shaft, thereby obstructing any direct contact
between the hair shaft and the ORS (Figure 3F)
. The club hair starts to
form, but displays an abnormally rounded and irregular shape (Figure 3, E and F)
while the normal club hairs in +/hr mice have a
serrated appearance at the corresponding stage of HF regression (day
18–20 pp) (Figure 4A)
. The HF portion between the DP and the proximal
end of the hair shaft in hr/hr skin forms a narrow, curved
strand of epithelial cells (Figure 3E)
. In striking contrast to the HF
of +/hr mice at the comparable stage of catagen development
(catagen VI-VIII of the normal mouse hair cycle20
), this
strand of the epithelial cells in hr/hr skin fails to
shorten (Figures 3, D and F, and 4B)
.
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The epithelial strand begins to break up into separate cell
clusters, surrounded by a thin layer of connective tissue sheath
(Figure 4H)
. The DP loses its connection with the proximal HF
epithelium. Almost no ORS is left in the middle HF portion, and only a
thin single layer of ORS remnant surrounds a thick and prominent IRS as
the only structure to retain the hair shaft in its follicular mooring.
Stage 6
The IRS abruptly disintegrates, starting from its lower end
(Figure 3G)
. The hair shaft moves rapidly upward because it is no
longer anchored by the IRS. The DP remains in the deep dermis,
surrounded by a few epithelial cells (Figures 3J and 4I)
.
Stage 7
The abnormally large and bulbous hair club that lacks normal
spiculae is mechanically retained in the distal HF portion (more
distant from the subcutis) by a keratinous, comb-like ORS structure in
the zone of trichilemmal keratinization which tightly embraces the hair
shaft (Figure 3, G and H)
.
Stage 8
Further widening of the pilary canal and regression of the ORS
allows the hair club to pass through the zone of the trichilemmal comb,
and the hair shaft falls out. In this stage, the characteristic
utriculi of hr/hr skin5,19
form (Figure 3, I and J)
, which do not develop in +/hr skin. The remainder of
the HF epithelial sheath forms a gradually disintegrating mass of
epithelial cells positioned on one side of the utricle's proximal
pole. The SG, which retains its normal structure, is positioned on the
opposite side of the utricle (Figure 3I)
.
Stage 9
Only a small cluster of keratinocytes from the disintegrated HF
remains in contact with the proximal portion of the utricle (Figure 3J)
. Because of the structure and position of these cell clusters, they
are referred to as the putative bulge-derived cells (PBDC), previously
described in the skin of adult hr/hr mice.19
At
stage 9, the lower portion of these PBDC clusters remains in contact
with the arrector pili muscle, which changes neither its shape nor its
position despite the dramatic changes of HF morphology in
hr/hr skin (Figure 3J)
. As the PBDC become separated from
the degenerating ORS and are located on the lower utricular pole, the
SG gradually surrounds the PBDC clusters to form a circular structure.
Some ORS and DP cell remnants are present in the dermis as separate,
ball-shaped spheres, composed of epithelial and fibroblast-like cells
(Figures 3J and 4D)
.
Alkaline Phosphatase (AP) Activity
In addition to the arrector pili muscle, which is positive for AP
activity in normal mouse skin,27
positive AP staining was
consistently observed in hr/hr DP during all stages of HF
regression and disintegration (Figure 4, B
-D). Starting at stages 1–2,
weak AP positivity is also seen in the central ORS (Figure 4C)
, where
it gradually increases until the onset of ORS disintegration (stage 5).
At stages 5–7, this AP reactivity is seen in epithelial cell clusters
originating from the middle ORS portion, but disappears thereafter
(note that the central ORS of normal mouse HF is never
AP-positive27
). DP remnants stranded in the deep dermis
after completion of HF disintegration are histochemically recognizable
by their strong and consistent AP activity (Figure 4D)
.
IL-1R1 Expression
We have previously used IL-1R1 expression as a reliable marker for
ORS and hair bulb keratinocytes.26
In heterozygous
+/hr mice with apparently normal hairs, strong IL-1R1
immunoreactivity is seen in the epithelial cells of the regressing ORS
throughout the entire catagen phase (Figure 4E)
with the highest
intensity of expression in the portion of the regressing epithelial
strand directly adjacent to the distal (upper) pole of the DP (Figure 4F)
. The DP itself is always IL-1R1-negative. This corresponds to the
IL-1R1 expression pattern observed in normal mouse HF.26
In homozygous hr/hr mice, however, the HF entry into
hr transformation is associated with a prominent decline in
the intensity and distribution of IL-1R1 immunoreactivity in the
proximal ORS, and consequently, in the epithelial strand (Figure 4G)
,
as compared to +/hr or to normal C57BL/6
mice.26
At stage 4 of hairless phenotype development, the
keratinocytes of the epithelial strand located just above the DP
exhibit a prominent decline in IL-1R1 expression (Figure 4, G and H)
,
whereas the DP retains a thin, IL-1R1-positive epithelial sheath that
is most prominent around its proximal pole, near the subcutis (Figure 4H)
. Later (on days 19–20 pp), when the DP remnants in
hr/hr skin become isolated ball-shaped structures (stage 9),
the associated IL-1R1 immunoreactivity loses its peripheral
localization and is also seen inside these keratinocyte- and
fibroblast-containing cell clusters (Figure 4I)
. At this point, it
becomes difficult to distinguish epithelium and mesenchyme in these
structures using this marker.
NCAM Expression
In addition to NCAM-positive nerve fibers of mouse
skin,25,29
at stage 1 of hr/hr HF
transformation (day 14 pp) NCAM immunoreactivity is also seen in the
DP. A thin layer of the connective tissue sheath is also NCAM-positive.
This corresponds well with the NCAM expression patterns reported for
normal mouse HF.25,30
However, by stage 2, NCAM
immunoreactivity declines in the DP (Figure 4J)
of hr/hr HF
compared to +/hr DP (Figure 4K)
, where it remains stable
during the entire catagen-associated HF transformation. Whereas the
NCAM expression in DP of hr/hr skin nearly ceased by stage 4
of HF transformation, the perifollicular connective tissue sheath of
hr/hr HF exhibited a stable NCAM immunoreactivity (Figure 4L)
. This expression pattern was seen not only around the epithelial
strand (stages 3–4), but also around remnants of the disintegrating
ORS, until the end of hairless phenotype development (stages 6–9). DP
fibroblasts stranded in the dermis were always surrounded by a thin
NCAM-positive connective tissue layer (Figure 4M)
.
Patterns of Proliferation and Apoptosis
The patterns of intrafollicular proliferation and apoptosis during HF transformation were compared between hr/hr and +/hr mice using a TUNEL/Hoechst33343/Ki-67 triple stain. At day 14 pp, all follicles in the skin of hr/hr and +/hr pups had completed HF morphogenesis and displayed the morphological signs of a mature anagen VI follicle.28,31 In accordance with this finding, strong Ki-67 staining in the hair matrix indicated the presence of normal-appearing proliferative activity in the HF of both genotypes (not shown). However, TUNEL stains revealed strikingly different patterns of apoptosis between hr/hr and +/hr mice. Notably, hr/hr mutants at this stage of HF transformation (stage 1) displayed TUNEL-positive cells in the hair matrix of approximately 7% of HF (1–3 positive cells in every TUNEL-positive hair bulb) while no TUNEL-positive cells were seen in the hair matrix of +/hr skin. On day 14 pp, the DP was TUNEL-negative in both hr/hr and hr/+ mice. Note that mature anagen VI hair bulbs of adolescent C57BL/6J mice are devoid of TUNEL-positive cells, and that like in +/hr mice, normal C57BL/6 mice never display TUNEL-positive cells in the hair matrix at day 14 pp.23
On day 15 pp, no changes in TUNEL or Ki-67 expression were found in
+/hr skin compared to the preceding day. In contrast,
hr/hr skin displayed a massive, premature apoptosis in the
bulb region of nearly all HF (about 90%) at stage 2 of hairless
phenotype development (Figure 5A)
.
Strikingly, this burst of programmed epithelial cell death in the
hr/hr hair bulb was accompanied by a high rate of cell
proliferation in the same HF region (Figure 5B)
. In every follicle, on
average about 20% (range, 10–50%) of matrix cells were
TUNEL-positive. In individual cells, a colocalization of TUNEL-positive
apoptotic bodies and Ki-67 IR was observed (Figure 5C)
. Interestingly,
on day 15 pp, some TUNEL-positive DP cells were observed as well
(Figure 5, A and D)
. In a minority of HF, even massive DP apoptosis was
detected (Figure 5E)
. In the skin of +/hr pups, DP
fibroblasts were always TUNEL-negative, exactly as we had shown
throughout normal mouse catagen development.23
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. These normal TUNEL-positive cells later
spread over the involuting proximal +/hr HF portion, much
like during normal catagen development in C57BL/6J mice,23
but never became as abundant (not more than 5–8 TUNEL-positive cells
per follicle) as during the premature, excessive, and ectopic apoptosis
observed in hr/hr skin. Because the onset of
apoptosis-driven HF regression is normally preceded by and associated
with a sharp decline in proliferative activity in the hair
bulb,4
(Paus et al, unpublished observations) this
indicates a dramatic failure of cell cycle and apoptosis coordination
in hair bulb keratinocytes of hr/hr mice. The switch from stage 2 to stage 3 of hairless phenotype development in hr/hr skin around day 15 pp occurs extremely rapidly, and was accompanied by a significant decline in the number of TUNEL-positive cells in the hair matrix. Ki-67 immunoreactivity in the hair matrix of hr/hr HF declined as well, though not quite as abruptly. Some Ki-67-positive cells were detected in the remnants of the involuting hair matrix of hr/hr HF even at stage 3 of HF transformation (not shown).
At stage 4 of hairless phenotype development (day 16 pp), after a short
period of virtual absence, TUNEL-positive cells reappeared in the
strand of epithelial cells located between the DP and the distal
portion of hr/hr HF (Figure 5G)
. On the one hand, these
cells suggested the presence of a second wave of intrafollicular
apoptosis in hr/hr skin which corresponded well to the
expected pattern and location of normal, catagen-associated apoptosis
in this HF region.23,32
On the other hand, however,
hr/hr skin failed to display any TUNEL-positive cells in the
region of club hair formation (Figure 5H)
. This is in striking contrast
to catagen HF in +/hr (Figure 5I)
or C57BL/6
mice,23
and further demonstrates that the absence of a
functional hr gene product causes severe disturbances in
normal catagen-associated HF transformation.23,32,33
During the final stage of hr/hr HF transformation (stage 9),
the epithelial cells that remained associated with the detached DP
remnants were Ki-67-positive, suggesting a high proliferative activity
in this ectopic epithelial compartment of hr/hr skin (Figure 5, J and K)
. The epithelial nature of these cells was confirmed by
their expression of IL-1R1 (Figure 4I)
, which is a useful and reliable
marker for distinguishing HF keratinocytes from the follicle-associated
mesenchyme.26
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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) is heralded by a
premature, massive, and ectopic up-regulation of intrafollicular
apoptosis in defined HF compartments, accompanied by a loss of
coordination with cell proliferation. This may lead to malpositioning
of the proximal IRS, ORS, and hair cortex and consequent failure of
trichilemmal keratinization in the club hair zone. The epithelial
strand of hr/hr skin is not able to undergo its normal
contraction during late catagen, and instead disintegrates into
separate cell clusters, while DP fibroblasts remain stranded in the
dermis (Figures 3J and 4
, D, H, and M). Thus, by the time the
hr/hr HF should initiate its lifelong cycling activity by
entry into the first catagen, it has already been essentially
destroyed.
We demonstrate that widening of the pilary canal is the first
morphological difference between hr/hr and +/hr
infantile mice. This widening starts from the most distal (adjacent to
the epidermis) region of the suprainfundibular ORS (Figure 3A)
, which
exhibits an epidermal type of keratinization.34
This may
reflect hr mutation-related abnormalities in the
interfollicular epidermis rather than in the HF itself, which
actually displays normal morphological features at that time.
hr mRNA expression has been reported not only in the HF, but
also in the interfollicular epidermis12
.
The very brief yet dramatic up-regulation of apoptosis in the hair
matrix of hr/hr mutant skin reported here (Figure 5, A and B)
offers a completely novel and profound insight into hr
biology. The onset of normal catagen is preceded by a cessation of
mitotic activity in the hair matrix;20,35
therefore, stage
2 of hr/hr HF transformation, which is characterized by very
high proliferative activity of matrix cells, cannot be accurately
referred to as an equivalent of early catagen. Although the first
TUNEL-positive cells in the +/hr hair matrix were observed
only after the cessation of proliferative activity (after the onset of
catagen), in the hair matrix of hr/hr skin, massive
apoptosis coincides with proliferation, and thus occurs prematurely in
a late anagen VI-like stage.
Furthermore, in several matrix cells, the co-localization of Ki-67 IR
and TUNEL-positive apoptotic bodies was evident (Figure 5C)
, suggesting
that some follicle keratinocytes have begun apoptosis during or
immediately after cell division, without entering into the
G0 phase of the cell cycle. This might
imply that hr is involved in coordinating the expression of
genes required for the gradual switch from proliferation to apoptosis
in defined matrix cell populations. Inactivation of the
hr gene due to a mutation in the hr locus may
invoke a dysregulation in this apparently tightly controlled
system.1-4
Thus, the normal hr gene product
may not be a catagen repressor, but rather an essential regulator of
the earliest events associated with normal HF regression, during which
the stepwise down-regulation of matrix cell proliferation must be
carefully coordinated with an up-regulation of apoptosis in selected
matrix cells.
The presence of TUNEL-positive cells (Figure 5, A, D, and E)
and of
declining NCAM expression (Figure 4, J and L)
in the DP of
hr/hr skin at the early stages of hairless phenotype
development is very unusual. Normal DP cells never show signs of
apoptosis during any hair cycle stage, not even after
chemotherapy,23
and they express NCAM protein
permanently.25,30,36
In fact, NCAM expression may be a key
topobiological feature linking DP fibroblasts to a unique mesenchymal
cell population with special secretory properties.37
Thus,
DP cells are also severely affected by the hr mutation,
possibly as the result of alterations in the local signaling milieu
that controls apoptosis and cell adhesion in the DP. This could result
a decline in an as yet elusive secretory DP activities that may be
important for the orderly development of HF regression, thus
further disrupting the controls of HF apoptosis and topobiology
operative during normal catagen.
The formation of an excessively large and bulbous hair club without spiculae that cannot anchor the hair shaft in hr/hr HF is associated with malpositioning of the proximal inner root sheath (IRS). Specific, spicula-like anchoring structures are formed by the interdigitation of club cells and transformed ORS keratinocytes,35 which undergo trichilemmal keratinization.38 This type of keratinization is also characteristic for the isthmus portion of the HF, where it forms specific comb-like structures resembling the serrated surface of the hair club.38,39 The IRS is able to suppress the trichilemmal keratinization of ORS cells in the isthmus region where this type of keratinization occurs only above the point where the IRS sloughs into the pilary canal.38 It is reasonable to invoke this model of IRS-ORS interactions in the isthmus for the process of hair club formation, where trichilemmal keratinization is also the main mechanism. The interdigitation of club cells and ORS keratinocytes in normal mouse HF is most likely regulated by hair club-ORS intersignaling that may be interrupted in the skin of hr/hr mice, where the IRS collapsed around the proximal end of the hair shaft.
During early catagen in apparently normal HRS/J +/hr mice,
the proximal IRS loses its connection with the hair matrix and is
significantly shortened before the termination of hair shaft
production, thus allowing for direct contact between the most proximal
hair cortex (which is even free of the cuticle at this stage of
catagen35
) and surrounding ORS cells. This may initiate
the trichilemmal keratinization in the zone of contact (Figure 4A)
. In
contrast, in hr/hr skin, hair shaft production is terminated
much earlier than IRS formation (Figure 3D)
, resulting in IRS
malpositioning and its consequent coalescence around the hair shaft end
(Figures 3F and 4B)
. This temporal disturbance may be attributed to
abnormal and premature apoptosis in the hair matrix of hr/hr
skin described above.
This suggestion is supported by observations that the pharmacological suppression of matrix cell proliferation during the late anagen stage with colchicine results in IRS malposition, formation of abnormal hair club, and hair loss in normally haired C57BL/6J inbred mice.6 Thus, our findings not only illuminate one reason for the failure of trichilemmal keratinization during catagen in hr/hr HF, but also provide further insight into the normal mechanisms of club hair formation.
That the DP becomes stranded in the reticular dermis of hr
skin is one of the most intriguing consequences of the hairless
mutation.5,19
The mechanisms of the upward DP movement
during normal catagen remain largely unknown.40,41
Yet
this is clearly a key process to ensure the perpetuation of
mesenchymal-epithelial contact and signaling during the hair cycle. Our
observation in hr/hr mice suggests that the absence of
proper hair germ-hair club signals, and/or apoptosis and cell adhesion
abnormalities in the DP itself, may be related to the failure of the DP
to move upwards. The epithelial strand portion directly adjacent to the
DP and characterized by elevated level of IL-1R1 expression during
catagen (may in normally haired +/hr skin) also be involved
in retaining the DPs association with the HF, since in hr/hr
mice this portion of epithelial strand is characterized by suppression
of IL-1R1 immunoreactivity (Figure 4, G and H)
. IL-1R1 is known as a
potent regulator of ICAM-1,42
which in turn is implicated
in regulation of adhesion and proliferation of skin lymphocytes and
follicular keratinocytes43,44
and is associated with some
HF pathological conditions in humans, such as alopecia
areata.45,46
These results further support the idea that
hairless mice are an attractive model for elucidating the molecular
controls of normal and pathological catagen-associated DP movement.
The Ki-67 antigen expression detected in the epithelial cells which
remained associated with the DP remnants at stages 7–8 of
hr/hr HF transformation suggests that these epithelial cell
clusters begin to proliferate (Figure 5J)
despite the disintegration of
hr/hr HF at this stage. It is of interest that other
isolated remnants of the proximal ORS, which did not contain DP
fibroblasts, displayed no proliferative activity. These
fibroblast-associated epithelial cell clusters are most likely the
source of AP-positive dermal cysts in mature hr/hr
skin.19
They may also be involved in the induction of the
second wave of hair growth, which takes place in hr/hr mice
during the 6th and 7th weeks of life47
and results in
sparse and abnormal hairs. The proliferative capacity of remnants of
the follicular epithelium that remain associated with DP-derived
fibroblasts further supports an inductive role of the DP in the
stimulation of epithelial cell proliferation41,48
and
underscores the utility of hr/hr mice as a unique model for
dissecting the factors governing the control of HF
cycling.10,19
The current studies confirm and extend our previous hypothesis that the
hr mutation in mice is associated with total disintegration
of the ORS below the SG duct, including the isthmus
region.19
Only a small cluster of ORS epithelial cells
retains its integrity. Most likely, this represents a remnant of the
bulge, believed to be one site of epithelial stem cells in the
HF,49
based on their location (association with arrector
pili muscle (Figure 3J)
and palisade nerve fibers), keratin 17
expression, and their ability to produce columnar epithelial
outgrowths.19
Previously, several mechanisms have been proposed as the immediate cause of hair shedding in hr/hr mice, including widening of the pilary canal,50 improper hair club formation,6,8 and disintegration of the permanent (isthmus) portion of the ORS.19 According to our current findings, each of these mechanisms seems to participate in the shedding of hairs in hr/hr skin, as the end result of a long chain of events that begins with a dramatic and premature up-regulation of apoptosis in the hair matrix, a failure to coordinate HF keratinocyte proliferation and apoptosis, and the disruption of the normal adhesion milieu of the HF. This is followed by IRS malpositioning and improper formation of club hairs, which are not sufficiently anchored in the ORS, but simply embedded into a poorly-organized, degenerating IRS that fails to undergo its normal shortening.20,21
Despite the evidence that the lower 3/4 of the HF involute in a stringently controlled manner during catagen,21,35,51 it is still unclear exactly how this process is regulated. The HF degeneration in mice carrying a partial loss-of-function mutation in the hr locus provides an attractive model for further dissection of cellular and molecular controls of HF cycling, especially the transcriptional controls of catagen, in which the hr gene product appears to play a pivotal role.10,19 It is reasonable to predict that a deeper understanding of exactly how this putative transcription factor regulates apoptosis, proliferation, and cell adhesion changes during each normal HF regression will facilitate the development of novel therapies that target the control of catagen as the most relevant clinical problem of hair biology.1,2
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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Supported in part by grants from Wella AG Darmstadt and from Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Pa 345/8–1, to R. P.), the National Cancer Institute (CA 34196, to J. P. S.), and the National Alopecia Areata Foundation (to A. M. C.). A. A. P. also is grateful to Drs. L. Kligman and A. M. Kligman (Foundation for Basic Cutaneous Research) for their partial financial support of his work.
Accepted for publication March 31, 1999.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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-delta T cells in murine skin during the induced hair cycle. Br J Dermatol 1994, 130:281-289[Medline]
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