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Regular Articles |
From the Divisions of Hematology/Oncology*
and
Nephrology,
Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt
University Medical Center Nashville, Tennessee
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Apoptosis can best be described as a sequence of morphological events that includes cell shrinkage, formation of the plasma membrane protrusions, or blebs, nuclear fragmentation, formation of apoptotic bodies, and eventual cell disintegration.7-10 Over the last 25 years, several molecular events accompanying apoptosis have been discovered. These include internucleosomal DNA fragmentation,11 alterations in the mitochondrial structures,12 loss of the plasma membrane phospholipid asymmetry,13,14 and caspase activation.15 A majority of apoptosis assays are based on detecting morphological evidence of apoptosis or visualization of products of internucleosomal DNA cleavage.7,8,11,16,17 Other tests rely on measuring subG1 DNA content in cells,18 binding of annexin V to phosphatidylserine residues exposed on the outer surface of the plasma membrane,19 or activation of caspases.20 Recently, we have applied an automated microculture kinetic (MiCK) assay21 to monitor changes in optical density (OD) of cells undergoing apoptosis22 and demonstrated applicability of this assay to the measurement of drug-induced apoptosis in leukemias.23
In our previous studies, the MiCK assay was compared with morphological, DNA fragmentation, and annexin V tests.22,23 Whenever apoptotic cells were detected by the MiCK assay, their presence was confirmed by these standard techniques. However, the extent of apoptosis varied depending on the assay method used and the time point at which cultures were assessed. All apoptosis assays used for comparisons with the MiCK assay were endpoint tests that evaluated a fraction of cells bearing an assay-specific apoptosis marker at an arbitrarily chosen time point. Conversely, the MiCK assay of apoptosis is a real-time kinetic test that utilizes cell membrane blebbing as an indicator of apoptosis and provides an integrative analysis for the multiple occurrences of single cell apoptosis over the entire culture period.23 These methodological differences imply that direct comparisons between endpoint assays and the MiCK assay in measuring apoptosis may not always be feasible.
In this study, changes in the OD of the cultures undergoing apoptosis were compared with direct observation of apoptosis by means of time-lapse video microscopy (TLVM). The latter technique is similar to the MiCK assay in that it enables real time observation of apoptosis-related morphological changes in cell cultures. The plasma membrane blebbing, an early event in apoptosis, can easily be observed by light microscopy, thus enabling the determination of the percentages of apoptotic cells in sequential frames taken at frequent intervals. Plotting these data against time allows for a real-time kinetic analysis of apoptosis which is not feasible with endpoint tests. To induce apoptosis, promyelocytic HL-60 cells were exposed to two chemotherapeutic compounds with different mechanisms of action, the topoisomerase II inhibitor epipodophyllotoxin etoposide and the intercalating agent cis-diamminedichloroplatinum (II) (cisplatin).
The TLVM data showed that in cell cultures undergoing apoptosis, both timing and rate of accumulation of cells with the plasma membrane distortions correlated with the timing and rate of the OD increase as determined by the MiCK assay. Flow cytometry studies of the light-scattering properties of the cells demonstrated an increase in side scattering of the light when steep increases of the OD were detected in cultures by the MiCK assay. Taken together, the TLVM and flow cytometry studies confirmed that early morphological modifications of apoptosis are responsible for the steep OD increases in cell cultures undergoing apoptosis. Comparisons were made between the results of analyses of apoptosis by the MiCK and TLVM assays and those by the three endpoint assays of DNA fragmentation, annexin V binding, and morphological evidence of apoptosis in Giemsa-stained cells.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Human HL-60 acute promyelocytic leukemia cells (American Type Culture Collection, Manassas, VA) were maintained in RPMI-1640 medium without phenol red and supplemented with 10% heat-inactivated fetal bovine serum (FBS, Hyclone, Logan, UT), 100 U/ml penicillin and 100 µg/ml streptomycin (complete medium) in completely humidified air with 5% CO2 at 37°C. The cultures were diluted every third day to a concentration of 5 x 105 cells/ml. Before use, exponentially growing cells were harvested, washed with prewarmed RPMI-1640 medium, and resuspended at required concentrations in complete medium. Cell counts and viability were determined using a hemocytometer and trypan blue dye exclusion.
MiCK Assay for Apoptosis
The MiCK assay for apoptosis was performed as described previously,22 with minor modifications. Cells were suspended in complete medium at 2 x 105 cells/ml, plated in 240-µl aliquots in a 96-well micro titer plate (Corning-Costar, Cambridge, MA), and incubated in a fully humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 for 60 minutes. Next, appropriate dilutions of etoposide and cisplatin were added to wells in 10-µl aliquots to achieve final concentrations of 1, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 µmol/L. After incubation at 37°C for 30 minutes in a completely humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 in air, 50 µl of sterile mineral oil (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) were layered on the top of each microculture. The microtiter plate was then placed in the incubated chamber of a spectrophotometer (SPECTRAmax 340, Molecular Devices Corp., Sunnyvale, CA), incubated at 37°C, and the OD at 600 nm was read every 5 minutes for a period of 24 hours. The reader was calibrated to zero absorbance using wells containing only complete medium without cells. The extent of apoptosis was expressed as both kinetic units (KU) of apoptosis and percentage of apoptotic cells using the methods described previously.23
Timing of Apoptosis in the MiCK Assay
The OD-versus-time curve produced by the MiCK assay consisted of several segments used to determine the timing of apoptosis.23 The time to the maximum response (Tm) is the period between the beginning of exposure of cells to the chemotherapeutic agent and the maximum OD. The Tm indicates the time of drug exposure at which a maximum proportion of cells display morphological evidence of apoptosis. The Tm consists of two components, the initiation time (Ti) and development time (Td). The Ti is the time from the beginning of the exposure of cells to the chemotherapeutic agent being tested until the beginning of the rapidly rising segment of the OD-versus-time curve. The Td is the period from the beginning of the rapidly rising segment until the maximum OD.
Time-Lapse Video Microscopy
Cells at 2 x 105 cells/ml were plated in 240 µl in a well of a 96-well microtiter plate and incubated for 1 hour in a fully humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2. A 10-µl aliquot of the appropriate drug was added to the well at the indicated concentration and 50 µl of sterilized mineral oil were layered on top of the medium to prevent liquid evaporation and CO2 escape. Next, the plate was placed in a 37°C plastic culture chamber fitted to a Nikon Diaphot Microscope (Nikon Inc., Melville, NY). A field with about 150 cells was selected and observed under either phase or Nomarski optics. Sequential images were collected at 2.5-minute intervals over a 24-hour period. Cells with the visible membrane protrusions were counted in consecutive frames and their proportions were expressed as percentages of the total number of cells.
Flow Cytometry Light Scattering Measurements
Cell aliquots were collected at multiple time points of drug exposure and maintained at 5 x 105 cells/ml in RPMI medium without phenol red at 4°C. Ten thousand cells per sample were analyzed for forward and side light scattering using a FACSCalibur Analyzer (Becton-Dickinson, San Jose, CA) equipped with an argon-ion laser with excitation at 488 nm. Cell debris was excluded by an appropriate forward light-scatter threshold setting.
Fluorescein-Conjugated Annexin V Binding Assay
The assay was performed as described previously.23 Briefly, at different times of drug exposure, cells were labeled with Annexin-V-fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) conjugate and propidium iodide (PI) using an Apoptosis Detection Kit (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN). After labeling, cells were resuspended in binding buffer and analyzed using the FACSCalibur Analyzer. FITC fluorescence was measured at 530–545 nm and fluorescence of DNA-PI complexes at 575–606 nm. Cell debris was excluded from analysis by appropriate forward light scatter threshold setting. Five thousand cells were analyzed in each condition. Four quadrants of the cytograms were set using negative controls. Proportions of cells in each quadrant were expressed as the percentage of the total population.23 Lower left quadrants of the cytograms showed viable, An-PI- cells. Lower right quadrants showed early apoptotic cells with preserved plasma membrane integrity (An+PI-). Upper right quadrants showed cells which have lost their plasma membrane integrity and became An+PI+.
Cell Morphology
Percentages of cells with morphological evidence of apoptosis were counted in Giemsa-stained cytospin preparations of control and drug-treated cultures. A total of 200 cells was counted on each preparation. Apoptotic cells were identified by plasma membrane protrusions, aggregated chromatin, fragmented nuclei, and condensed basophilic cytoplasm.22,23
Electrophoretic Analysis and Quantitation of DNA Fragmentation
Cells were exposed to 10 µmol/L etoposide or 5 µmol/L cisplatin for various periods of time, harvested, washed twice in cold Tris-buffered saline (TBS), and incubated at 37°C for 1 hour in lysis buffer (10 mmol/L Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 100 mmol/L EDTA, pH 8.0, 20 mg/ml RNase A, 0.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate). Cell lysates were incubated at 50°C overnight in the presence of 50 mg/ml proteinase K. DNA was extracted with an equal volume of Tris buffer-saturated phenol-chloroform (1:1). The extraction was repeated three times, and after the third extraction the aqueous phase was mixed with 0.2 volume of 10 mol/L ammonium acetate followed by addition of 2 volumes of absolute ethanol. After 15 minutes at -70°C, precipitated DNA was dried, resuspended in Tris-EDTA buffer (10 mmol/L Tris-HCl and 1 mmol/L EDTA) and DNA concentrations were determined from the absorbance at 260 nm. One microgram of DNA from each sample was separated on 1.5% agarose gels in Tris-phosphate electrophoresis buffer, pH 8.0, containing 0.5 mg/ml ethidium bromide. For quantitation of DNA fragmentation, densitometric analysis of a digital image of the agarose gel was performed using the IS-1000 Digital Imaging System (Alpha Innotech Corp., San Leandro, CA). Unloaded lanes were used to measure background fluorescence.
Statistics and Graphics
Linear regression analyses of slopes of the apoptotic OD-versus-time curves as well as all graphics and other statistics were performed using Origin Scientific Software (MicroCal Software, Inc., Northampton, MA). Images were captured using Bioquant Image Analysis Software (Bioquant Corp., Nashville, TN)
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Promyelocytic HL-60 cells have previously been shown to undergo apoptosis on exposure to both etoposide24,25 and cisplatin.26,27 In the present study, the MiCK assay was used for 24-hour monitoring of apoptosis in HL-60 cells exposed to 1, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 µmol/L of either drug. In the MiCK assay, apoptosis is indicated by a steep OD increase which exceeds the rise in the OD observed in the control culture over the same time interval; the net slope of the steep rising portion of the apoptotic curve is proportional to the percentage of apoptosis.22,23
All doses of etoposide and the four highest doses of cisplatin induced
apoptosis in HL-60 cells within 24 hours of drug exposure (Figure 1
and Table 1
). Increases in the concentrations of
either drug were followed by a gradual increase in the extent of
apoptosis and shortening of the time to the maximum response (Figure 1)
. At 1 µmol/L etoposide, a weak apoptotic response of 0.4 KU (6.4%
apoptotic cells) could be detected with a maximum at 23.5 hours,
whereas 20 µmol/L etoposide caused apoptosis response of 9.6 KU (62%
apoptotic cells) with a maximum at 7 hours (Figure 1A)
. In HL-60 cells
exposed to 1 µmol/L cisplatin, apoptosis could not be detected within
24 hours, whereas 2.5 µmol/L cisplatin caused an apoptosis response
of 4.1 KU (30% apoptotic cells) with a maximum by 22.5 hours (Figure 1B)
. As with etoposide, an increase in concentration of cisplatin was
followed by an increase in the proportion of apoptotic cells and a
substantial shortening the time to the maximum response (Figure 1B
and
Table 1
).
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. Increases in
doses of etoposide from 1 to 20 µmol/L and cisplatin from 2.5 to 20
µmol/L resulted in shortening of Ti by 80% in both cases. However,
at 2.5 and 5 µmol/L, the Ti was 10 hours and 9 hours longer,
respectively, in cisplatin-treated cells as compared to the cells
exposed to the same doses of etoposide (Table 1)
. At 10 and 20
µmol/L, the differences in Ti between cells exposed to the two drugs
still existed, but to a much lesser degree (Table 1)
. Td in
etoposide-treated cultures was 3 times longer at 1 µmol/L as compared
to 20 µmol/L, whereas in cisplatin-treated cells the duration of Td
at 2.5 µmol/L was only 1.3 times longer than it was at 20 µmol/L
(Table 1)
. As opposed to the duration of Ti, at the same dosages of the
two drugs, Td was always shorter in cisplatin-treated cells. The
shortest Td of 3.25 hours was observed in cells exposed to 20 µmol/L
cisplatin (Figure 1B
and Table 1
). Comparisons between the MiCK Assay and Time-Lapse Video Microscopy Studies of Apoptosis
Comparisons between the MiCK assay and TLVM were made for cells
exposed to 10 µmol/L etoposide and 5 µmol/L cisplatin, two
treatments that resulted in substantially different extent and timing
of apoptosis (Figure 1
and Table 1
). In the MiCK assay, 10 µmol/L
etoposide induced an apoptotic response of 9.4 KU (61% apoptotic
cells) with a Tm of 8 hours and both Ti and Td of 4 hours (Figure 2A
and Table 1
). Over the initial 2-hour
culture, a minor OD increase was seen which gradually became steeper
between 2 and 4 hours (Figure 2A)
. Between 4 and 7 hours of culture,
the steepest increase in the OD was observed at an almost linear rate
(r = 0.994). Between 7 and 8 hours, the OD
increased at a slower rate, merging with a short OD plateau which
lasted until 9.5 hours of culture (Figure 2A)
. The plateau was followed
by a gradual OD decline which slowed even more after 16 hours (Figure 2A)
. Until the end of the assay (24 hours), the OD value remained
elevated compared to its value at 0 hours.
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. After 2.5 hours of drug
exposure, an increase in the proportion of blebbed cells was observed
which progressed between 4.2 and 7.25 hours with the maximum of blebbed
cells at 7.25 hours (54.6%; Figure 2, B, D, and E
). Between 4.5 and
6.25 hours of drug exposure, the proportion of blebbed cells increased
at a uniform, almost linear rate of 21.5% of the total cell number per
hour (r = 0.997). Between 6.25 and 7.25 hours,
the proportion of blebbed cells continued to increase at a slower rate
reaching a short plateau (which appears as a peak in Figure 2B
because
only every sixth time point is shown), followed by an abrupt fall in
the proportion of blebbed cells (Figure 2B)
. At 12 hours, blebbed cells
comprised only 5% of the population and continued to decline further
(Figure 2, B and F)
. At this time, the cell population mainly consisted
of rounded cells with granular inclusions, which are referred to as
residual apoptotic bodies (Figure 2F)
. In addition to residual
apoptotic bodies, a number of small cell fragments could also be seen
in the cultures (Figure 2G)
. At 16 hours and especially at 24 hours,
most of residual apoptotic bodies acquired the morphological appearance
of secondarily necrotic cells with swollen cytoplasm and prominent
inner granularity (Figure 2, G and H)
. Some of them were present in the
cultures even at 36 hours of drug exposure (not shown). At these late
times, necrotic cells coexisted with an increased number of cell
fragments and cell debris (Figure 2H)
.
In the MiCK assay, cells exposed to 5 µmol/L cisplatin showed an
apoptotic response of 5.9 KU (40% apoptotic cells) with Tm of 20.2
hours, Ti of 15.75 hours, and Td of 4.45 hours (Figure 3A
and Table 1
). Over the initial 9
hours, a gradual OD increase was seen in the culture. The period
between 9 and 14.5 hours was remarkable for an OD increase at a rate
which was slower than either the rate of OD increase over the initial 9
hours or the rate of the OD increase between 14.5 and 21 hours. Between
16 and 19 hours of culture, the steepest increase in the OD was
observed (r = 0.997). After 19 hours, the
increase in OD slowed, with the curve merging with a short plateau at
20.2 hours. Between 21 and 24 hours, the OD declined gradually (Figure 3A)
.
|
. Within this 10-hour
period, cells continued to proliferate. The final step of cell division
(cytokinesis) with two resulting daughter cells could clearly be seen
in consecutive frames (not shown). Counting cell numbers with a
hemocytometer demonstrated a 1.5-fold increase in the cellularity over
initial 10-hour period with 92% viable cells in the culture. The
observed increase in cellularity corresponded to a steady increase in
the OD over the same period of time (Figure 3A)
. Between 10.2 and 13.5
hours, the percentage of blebbed cells increased at a slow rate, which
was then accelerated between 13.5 and 16 hours. No dividing cells were
revealed between 10 and 13.5 hours, suggesting that the slow OD
increase over this period reflected a moderate increase in the
proportion of blebbed cells from 0 to 8.5% (Figure 3, A and B)
.
Between 16 and 19 hours, the steepest increase in the proportion of
blebbed cells was observed at a uniform rate of 5.1% of the total cell
number per hour (r = 0.998) (Figure 3B)
. After
19 hours, the proportion of blebbed cells continued to increase at a
slower rate, reaching a maximum of 38% at 21.5 hours (Figure 3B)
.
Next, an abrupt decrease in their proportion was observed, with
only 11.5% of blebbed cells present at 24 hours (Figure 3B)
.
Despite the substantial differences in timing, apoptosis-related
morphological changes in cells exposed to 5 µmol/L cisplatin were
similar to those of cells treated with hours 10 µmol/L etoposide,
which are shown in Figure 2, C–H
. A decline in the proportion of
blebbed cells after the maximum was accompanied by accumulation of
rounded residual apoptotic bodies, small cell fragments and, at 24 and
36 hours, cells with necrotic morphology (not shown).
Frame-by-Frame Analysis of a Single Cell Apoptosis
Morphological changes in a single cell undergoing apoptosis on
exposure to 10 µmol/L etoposide were monitored between 0 hours and 15
hours of culture (Figure 4)
. Over the
first 3.5 hours, the cell displayed no visible morphological changes
(Figure 4A)
. At 3.5 hours, a slight reduction in cell size was noticed
with a minor ruffling of the plasma membrane (Figure 4B)
. Formation of
the plasma membrane protrusions was initiated at 4.12 hours (Figure 4C)
with a full extent of blebbing achieved by 4.32 hours, ie, within 12
minutes (Figure 4D)
. Once developed, the blebbed stage could be
observed in the cell until 6.75 hours of culture. During this period,
both cell geometry and size of the membrane protrusions were constantly
changing. The cell pictured at 6.75 hours (Figure 4E)
displayed
prominent membrane blebs; however, the blebs were of a smaller caliber
than found in the cell at 4.32 hours (Figure 4D)
. After this time, the
cell underwent the process which we designate as shedding of the blebs
(Figure 4F)
. During this stage, blebs, previously distributed evenly
over the entire surface of the cells, gradually acquired regularly
rounded shape and started to detach from the parental cell. This
shedding stage required 12 minutes to complete, resulting in multiple
membrane-bound cell fragments surrounding a large single residual
apoptotic body (Figure 4G)
. The cell fragments were of different sizes
and located at different distances from the residual apoptotic body.
Until 8.75 hours, a gradual detachment of the cell fragments from the
residual body could be observed (Figure 4H)
. After 8.75 hours, the
content of the residual cell mass started to swell, its contour
becoming less distinguishable, and by 8.83 hours (ie, within 5 minutes)
it acquired the appearance of a necrotic cell with transparent swollen
cytoplasm containing granular material (Figure 4I)
. The known apoptotic
history of this cell's death permitted its designation as a
secondarily necrotic cell. It persisted in culture until 15 hours,
after which time the cell boundaries became indistinguishable (not
shown). Necrotic cells with swollen and granular cytoplasm comprised a
majority of the culture at 16 to 24 hours (Figure 2, D
-F). They were
trypan blue-positive and in cytospin preparations made after 16 hours
of drug exposure they always appeared as cellular debris.
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Flow Cytometry Studies of the Light-Scattering Properties of the Cells
To relate the morphological changes of apoptosis described above
to changes in the optical properties of the cultures, flow cytometry
analysis of forward and side light-scattering properties of the cells
was performed. Light-scattering properties of HL-60 cells were studied
at multiple time points during exposure of the cells to 10 µmol/L
etoposide and 5 µmol/L cisplatin. In control cultures, four subsets
of cells, which were designated as quadrants R1, R2, R3, and R4, could
be defined by the combination of light-scattering properties of cells
(Figure 5)
. The vast majority of viable
cells with relatively uniform light-scattering properties were located
in quadrant R1 of the cytogram. A small proportion of cells displaying
a decreased forward light-scattering was located in the quadrant R3.
Presence of these cells in control cultures could be due to both the
natural polymorphism of the cell population, with smallest cells
located in R3 and shrinkage of cells undergoing spontaneous apoptosis.
Quadrants 2 and 4 contained cells with increased side scattering and
either normal (R2) or decreased (R4) forward scattering, ie, the
properties suggestive for apoptotic cells with blebbed plasma
membranes, fragmented nuclei, and increased granularity. In control
cell cultures, cells in quadrants 2, 3, and 4 together comprised less
than 4% of the total population. This number was similar to the
percentage of HL-60 cells undergoing spontaneous apoptosis as
determined in Giemsa-stained preparations.
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. Accumulation of cells with an increased
side scatttering and decreased forward scattering (R4) was first seen
at 4 hours and became even more evident at 6 and 8 hours (Figure 5)
.
Between 4 and 6 hours, a 4.3-fold increase in the proportion of cells
in R4 was detected as compared to only 1.4-fold increase in the
proportion of cells in R3. This indicates the increase in side
scattering of the light as the main event detected by flow cytometry
over the period between 4 and 6 hours of culture, ie, the time when the
steepest rate of the OD rise was seen in the MiCK assay (Figure 2A)
and
the most intensive increase in percentage of blebbed cells was found in
TLVM (Figure 2B)
. The main event revealed by flow cytometry at 12 and
24 hours of culture was the accumulation of cells in R2 with
concomitant loss of cells in R1. This progressive shift of cells to R2
correlated with accumulation in cultures of secondarily necrotic cells
with granular inclusions (Figure 2, G and H)
.
In cisplatin-treated cultures, changes in scattering of the light were
first seen at 12 hours incubation (Figure 5)
. As time elapsed, a modest
increase in number of cells in R3 could be detected; however, the major
event in the culture was an increase in side light-scattering
properties of the cells (Figure 5)
. Between 12 and 16 hours, cells were
accumulating in both R2 and R4 but mainly in R2. However, between 16
and 21 hours, ie, at the time of the steepest OD increase reported by
the MICK assay (Figures 5 and 3A)
, an eightfold increase in cell number
was detected in R4 as compared to only 1.6-fold increase in R2 (Figure 5)
. At 36 hours, majority of the cells were shifted to R2 with a
concomitant reduction in the proportion of cells in other quadrants
(Figure 5)
.
DNA Fragmentation, Annexin V Binding, and Morphological Assays
These three standard endpoint techniques for measuring apoptosis were applied to HL-60 cells at multiple time points of their exposure to 10 µmol/L etoposide or 5 µmol/L cisplatin.
Double labeling of the cells with Annexin V-FITC and PI helped to
distinguish the early apoptotic cells (An+PI-) from the cells with
lost plasma membrane integrity (An+PI+). The percentages of An+PI-
cells at multiple times of exposure to each of the drugs were compared
with quantitative data on DNA cleavage and the percentages of cells
with morphological evidence of apoptosis as detected in Giemsa-stained
preparations (Figure 6)
.
|
. Between 4
and 8 hours, a gradual decline in early apoptotic cells was observed;
between 8 and 12 hours, the proportion of An+PI- cells dropped
abruptly and remained at this low level until 24 hours. In
cisplatin-treated cultures, the proportion of the An+PI- cells peaked
at 16 hours (28.9%), gradually declined until 24 hours, and then
abruptly fell by 36 hours (Figure 6)
. With either drug, abrupt
decreases in An+PI- cells were accompanied by increases in the
proportions of An+PI+ cells (not shown).
Results of electrophoretic separation of DNA extracted from cells at
various time points are shown in Figure 7
. The ladder-like pattern of
internucleosomal DNA cleavage is seen in etoposide-treated cells
between 4 and 16 hours of drug exposure and in cisplatin-treated cells
between 12 and 36 hours. Densitometric analyses of the digital images
of the gel were performed to determine the proportion of
fragmented DNA as a percentage of the total DNA (Figure 6)
. In
etoposide-treated cells, the percentage of fragmented DNA gradually
increased, reaching its maximum of about 72% at 12 and 16 hours and
then declining to 30% at 24 hours (Figure 6A)
. In cisplatin-treated
cells (Figure 6B)
, a maximum proportion of fragmented DNA (57%) was
observed at 24 hours, followed by its decline to 43% at 36 hours of
culture.
|
. The maximum percentage
of morphologically apoptotic cells (35%) was seen at 21 hours and then
was followed by its decline to 19.5% and 4.2% by 24 and 36 hours of
exposure, respectively (Figure 6B)
.
In Table 2
, results of studies of
etoposide- and cisplatin-induced apoptosis with these three endpoint
assays are shown in comparison with the results of the two kinetic
tests, the TLVM and the MiCK assay.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The promyelocytic HL-60 leukemia cell line is a well established model that has previously been used in studies of apoptosis induced by the two chemotherapeutic agents, etoposide and cisplatin.24-27 Etoposide, which is most effective against cells in the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle, forms a ternary complex with topoisomerase II and DNA, resulting in double-stranded DNA breaks.28,29 Cisplatin causes both intrastrand and interstrand cross-linking of DNA, leading to the inhibition of DNA replication and DNA breakage.30,31 Although the cross-linking effects of cisplatin are most prominent during S phase, the cell-cycle phase specificity of cisplatin is less evident than that of etoposide.
In the present study, the MiCK assay was applied to monitor drug responses in HL-60 cells exposed to multiple concentrations of etoposide and cisplatin. Due to the kinetic nature of the MiCK assay, it routinely reports the definite maximum of drug response and indicates the time at which it was achieved. In our previous publication,23 this time was designated as the time to the maximum response (Tm) and was shown to consist of two components, initiation time (Ti) and development time (Td).
Both the extent and timing of apoptotic responses strongly depended on
the concentration of either drug. An increase in the drug
concentrations was accompanied by an increased apoptosis and shortening
of the time to the maximum response (Figure 1)
. These data were in
agreement with our observations made with other chemotherapeutic
agents, idarubicin, daunorubicin, and mitoxantrone.23
Remarkable differences in kinetics of apoptosis caused by etoposide and
cisplatin were revealed at 2.5 and 5 µmol/L of the drugs (Table 1)
.
At each of these doses, Tm was significantly longer with cisplatin
while Td was longer with etoposide. Therefore, the prolonged duration
of Tm at 2.5 and 5 µmol/L cisplatin was due to a prolonged Ti, ie,
the time required to initiate apoptosis in the most susceptible cells
of the population. This longer Ti in cisplatin-treated cultures is
consistent with the pharmacokinetics of the drug. Namely, after
entering the cell by diffusion, cisplatin must be converted into its
active, positively charged form by replacement of chloride by
water.31
Therefore, accumulation in cells of effective
concentrations of activated species of the drug depends on rate of
aquation and may be affected by an increased concentration of
intracellular chloride. Despite the differences in kinetics of
apoptosis seen at low drug concentrations, we could not find any
significant difference in the apoptosis-inducing potency of etoposide
and cisplatin. Except for 1 µmol/L cisplatin, which did not induce
apoptosis within 24 hours, at equal concentrations of both drugs
similar values of the maximum apoptotic response were detected. At
higher concentrations of 10 and 20 µmol/L, the differences in both
kinetics and extent of apoptosis induced by the two drugs were
negligible.
To relate the MiCK assay results to the changes in morphological and light-scattering properties of the cells during apoptosis, the MiCK assay, TLVM, and flow cytometry were applied to the cells exposed to etoposide and cisplatin. TLVM has previously been proven to be an informative tool in studying morphological changes of apoptosis.32-34 In turn, flow cytometry studies performed with several types of cells demonstrated that early stages of apoptosis were characterized by a decreased forward light-scattering, whereas advanced stages were accompanied by an increased side scattering of the light.16,35,36 The intensity of the forward light-scattering is proportional to the cell volume while side light scattering strongly depends on cell shape and granularity of the cellular contents.37 In our experiments, 10 µmol/L etoposide and 5 µmol/L cisplatin were used as the cell death inducers because at these concentrations, the most prominent differences in both kinetics and extent of apoptosis were revealed by the MiCK assay. At times when the MiCK assay reported rapid linear increases in the OD of the cultures, rapid linear increases in the proportion of cells with plasma membrane blebbing could be detected by TLVM. Over the same periods, flow cytometry analyses revealed accumulation of cells with increased side scattering and decreased forward scattering of the light in the cell populations. These results indicated that accumulation of cells with irregular shapes was the main cause of the increased side scattering between 4 and 8 hours in etoposide-treated cultures and between 16 and 21 hours in cisplatin-treated cultures. In turn, these increases in side scattering appeared to cause the steep increases in the OD detected by the MiCK assay. Because the stage of membrane blebbing coincides with nuclear breakdown,9,34,38 nuclear fragments may increase inner granularity of cells and, thus, may also contribute to increased side scattering properties of apoptotic cells. In our recent studies,23,24 the slope of the steep rising portion of the OD-versus-time curve was used to quantify apoptosis because this slope was found to correlate with the proportion of apoptotic cells in Giemsa-stained preparations. Data presented in this paper directly confirm that the rapid linear increase of the OD, an indicator of apoptosis in the MiCK assay, correlates with the progressive accumulation in the cultures of cells with morphological evidence of apoptosis.
The frame-by-frame analysis of the sequential changes in cell
morphology during apoptosis has shown that all of the 15 analyzed cells
proceeded through the characteristic stages of cell shrinkage and
plasma membrane blebbing. However, we did not observe a stage of cell
fragmentation in its classic description in which apoptotic cells fall
apart, forming multiple cell fragments of a smaller
size.7-9
Instead, the blebbed stage was followed by the
stage which we have designated as shedding of the blebs. In this
shedding stage, the blebs became complete spheres, some of which
remained physically associated with the large residual apoptotic body
for hours, while others promptly detached and became freely distributed
in medium (Figure 4, F–I)
. Propidium iodide staining has shown nuclear
material to be associated with the large residual apoptotic bodies
rather than with the freely distributed small cell fragments (not
shown). Large residual bodies persisted for many hours but eventually
they lost their membrane integrity, swelled, and acquired the
morphology of necrotic cells.
Another finding from the TLVM was that morphological modifications in
cells during apoptosis occurred in such a manner that the cells had
prolonged periods of relatively stable shapes that were punctuated by
brief periods of rapidly changing shape. These rapid changes required 5
to 15 minutes to complete and occurred when the cell developed blebs,
when the cell shed blebs, when the residual body swelled, and when the
residual body dissolved. Stable stages, which lasted for hours, were
the pre-apoptotic, blebbed, and postshedding stages. In regard to the
ability of the MiCK assay to quantify apoptosis, the most important
findings were the rapid development of blebs and the prolonged duration
of the blebbed stage, which lasted for 3 to 4 hours. Taken together,
these two events help to explain the steepness and linearity of the OD
increases in cultures undergoing apoptosis. First, the blebbing stage
developed in the cells most susceptible to the induction of apoptosis.
Blebbing of the plasma membrane of the early responders provided the
initial rise in the OD of the culture seen at the beginning of Td. Once
developed, the blebbing stage lasted for about 3 to 4 hours, thus
providing for an increased side scattering in cultures. Cells which
entered apoptosis at later times contributed to a further OD increase
from the level which has already been achieved and maintained due to
the lasting blebbing stage in cells which initiated apoptosis earlier.
TLVM studies showed that in both etoposide-treated and
cisplatin-treated cells, the increases in the percentages of blebbed
cells were linear over certain periods during Td (Figures 2B and 3B)
.
Hence, this linear influx of blebbed cells accounts for linearity of
the steep rising portion of the apoptotic curve. Cessation of the OD
increase can be explained by the depletion of the cell subpopulation
capable of developing apoptosis in response to an inducer. The
following fall in the proportion of blebbed cells was due to shedding
of the blebs with accumulation in cultures of large residual apoptotic
bodies and small cell fragments.
In the MiCK assay, only the portion of the OD-versus-time curve that precedes the OD maximum is used in evaluation of apoptosis. However, we took advantage of direct comparisons between the MiCK assay, TLVM, and flow cytometry and attempted to explain the behavior of the portion of the apoptotic curve after the OD maximum. TLVM demonstrated significant complexity in the composition of cultures at times after the OD maximum. This structural polymorphism of the culture impedes an accurate interpretation of the corresponding flow cytometry data. Nonetheless, as seen in TLVM, similarity in the size of large residual bodies and that of unaffected cells may account for similarity in forward light-scattering properties of cells at the beginning and at the end of study. Prominent intracellular granularity of large residual bodies and, later, of highly translucent necrotic cells may explain their augmented side scattering properties and account for gradual, rather than abrupt, decline of the apoptotic curve after the OD maximum. In general, under the conditions used, the gradual decline of the apoptotic curve after the maximum OD appeared to reflect the disintegrative process in dead cells.
Although the membrane blebbing is an important component of apoptosis, it has also been described in a form of cell death that is more rapid than apoptosis and has been observed in renal tubular cells39,40 and hepatocytes.41-43 These cells can die within minutes following specific stimuli that include metabolic toxins, anoxia, and rapidly altered intracellular ion concentrations.39-43 However, unlike the blebbing in apoptosis, the blebbing associated with these acute toxic stimuli can result in immediate cell lysis through bleb rupture or, in cases of sublethal stimuli, the blebbing can be reversible.42 The rapid death of cells by these toxic processes has been termed cell lysis or cell oncosis and, like apoptosis, this lytic process can lead to the subsequent morphological endpoint of cellular necrosis.41,44
Different endpoint assays of apoptosis rely on different markers of apoptosis. However, apoptosis is a highly dynamic process during which characteristic morphological and biochemical markers of apoptosis may be observed in cells for only a limited period of time. The durations of these periods vary depending on the cell type, the cell-cycle status, and the type and concentration of apoptosis inducer. Moreover, cells of the same population are not uniform in their susceptibility to an apoptosis inducer and may initiate apoptosis at different times of the drug exposure. Because of asynchronous involvement of the cells in apoptosis, different proportions of apoptotic cells with membrane blebbing, fragmented DNA, modified mitochondrial units, broken nuclei, or activated caspases coexist at any one time of culture. Therefore, depending on the endpoint method used to study apoptosis, the extent of apoptosis determined in the same cell population may be different. For example, Koopman et al,45 who studied apoptosis in Burkitt's lymphoma cells and in the germinal center B lymphocytes cultured in serum-restricted medium, reported that in populations with well developed DNA cleavage only a low proportion of cells was annexin V-positive. When cultures were incubated in serum-restricted medium for longer periods, intensity of the oligonucleosomal bands decreased, whereas the proportions of annexin V-positive cells and cells with condensed nuclei increased. Conversely, Martin et al14 have shown that in cultures of T-lymphocytic Jurkat cells exposed to anti-Fas antibody, the accumulation of annexin V-positive cells always preceded that of cells with morphological criteria of apoptosis.
In our study of apoptosis in HL-60 cells exposed to 10 µmol/L
etoposide or 5 µmol/L cisplatin, cell cultures were examined at
multiple times to determine the time at which a maximum extent of
apoptosis is revealed by each of the three endpoint assays (Figure 6
and Table 2
). With annexin V binding assay, a maximum extent of
apoptosis could always be detected 4 to 5 hours earlier than it was
seen in Giemsa-stained preparations and 8 hours earlier than it was
detected by measuring of DNA fragmentation. Values of the maximum
extent of apoptosis varied depending on an endpoint assay used (Table 2)
. Moreover, the extent of apoptosis varied when it was measured at
the same time points with the annexin V, morphological and DNA
fragmentation assays (Figure 6)
.
The dynamic nature of apoptotic process suggests that the same endpoint
assay applied at different times of culture would produce differing
estimates of apoptosis. Indeed, in our study, the results of the
measurement of apoptosis with each of the three endpoint assays
strictly depended on time of the drug exposure. With all these assays,
the proportions of apoptotic cells were increasing with time until the
maxima and then declined. Therefore, to determine a maximum of
apoptotic response induced by a certain drug concentration, any
endpoint assay must be applied at multiple times of drug exposure. In
turn, the determination of both a maximum response and the time at
which it was achieved, is an obligatory requirement for determining of
an apoptosis-inducing potency of an agent and for a comparison between
results of studies performed in different laboratories or with
different methods. Remarkably, of the three endpoint assays of
apoptosis, results of morphological evaluation showed best correlations
with those of the TLVM and MiCK assay (Table 2)
.
In our studies, the maximum DNA cleavage was detected when cells with
necrotic morphology clearly predominated in the cultures. These
observations are consistent with the fact that internucleosomal DNA
cleavage is a late event of apoptosis.13,33,34
However,
detection of the maximum DNA fragmentation in cultures consisting of
morphologically necrotic cells does not allow a definite conclusion to
be made as of whether internucleosomal DNA cleavage was initiated in
cells during apoptosis or it was confined to the stage of secondary
necrosis. It is noteworthy, that in cultures treated with 10 µmol/L
etoposide, a maximum extent of apoptosis by the morphological test was
64% at 8 hours culture (Figure 6A)
, whereas at 16 hours, more than
95% of cells were trypan blue-positive and had necrotic morphology. It
follows that, at least, 30% of necrotic cells seen at 16 hours could
have emerged from primary or ab initio necrosis rather than
to be a final step of the apoptotic cell death. A concern has already
been raised by others as to whether internucleosomal DNA cleavage is a
specific and obligatory event of apoptosis.46-48
Our observations heightened this concern and necessitate
additional studies to clarify the issue.
Like the plasma membrane blebbing, the activation of a series of caspases, a family of the interleukin-1ß-converting enzyme (ICE)-like cysteine proteases, is an early event in apoptosis. Detection of apoptosis by measurement of cleavage of various caspase substrates49-51 has the potential to be used as an apoptosis assay.52 However, as with any endpoint assay, this method may be accurate in evaluation of apoptosis only if applied at multiple times after exposure of the cells to an inducer of apoptosis. Recent reports showed that protease inhibitors zVADfmk or BDfmk inhibited chromatin condensation and internucleosomal cleavage in cells exposed to various apoptosis inducers; however, these inhibitors had no effect on the membrane blebbing.53 Considering that membrane blebbing is the major determinant in the apoptosis signal measured in the MiCK assay, it would be of an interest to perform MiCK assay-guided quantitative kinetic studies of the caspase activation during drug-induced apoptosis as well as to investigate the effects of caspase inhibitors on the kinetics of drug-induced apoptosis in tumor cells.
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Footnotes |
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Support for this study has been provided in part by National Cancer Institute Cancer Center Support grant 1P30 CA68485 to V. D. K., National Institutes of Health grant RO-1 DK38518 to T. O. D., and Leukemia Society of America Translational Research grant 6276 to M. J. K.
Accepted for publication June 10, 1999.
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References |
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21 kbp was considered intact; all DNA <21 Kbp was
considered as fragmented.