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From the Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, Texas
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Considering its role in controlling cell permeability, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a potent mediator. VEGF is a 35- to 43-kd dimeric polypeptide expressed in several isoforms (121, 165, 189, and 206 amino acids) resulting from alternative mRNA splicing of a single gene.9 Initially discovered because of its ability to increase vascular permeability, the molecule was first called vascular permeability factor (VPF).10 VEGF/VPF is a pivotal angiogenic factor mediating developmental, physiological, and pathological neovascularization.9,11,12 VEGF/VPF stimulates the proliferation and migration of endothelial cells and also induces expression of metalloproteinases and plasminogen activity by these cells.13-16 Recent reports indicate that VEGF/VPF plays a central role in formation of ascites in animal models.17-20 Work from our laboratory showed that the expression level of VEGF/VPF by human ovarian cancer cells directly correlates with production of ascites.19 Increased permeability of blood vessels facilitates the extravasation of proteins and, thus, the formation of ascites.17 Similarly, the level of VEGF/VPF in human malignant PE correlated with the volume of PE. Whether expression of VEGF/VPF is solely responsible for formation of PE, however, remained unclear.
The purpose of this study was to determine the molecular mechanisms that regulate the pathogenesis of malignant PE by human NSCLC implanted orthotopically in nude mice. Using human lung adenocarcinoma and squamous carcinoma cells with different invasive properties and expression levels of VEGF/VPF, we demonstrate that PE formation requires both invasion of the pleural space by tumor cells and expression of VEGF/VPF.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The human lung adenocarcinoma cell line PC14 was obtained from Dr. N. Saijo (National Cancer Center Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan).21 The selected PC14PE6 line was established from PE developed in a nude mouse injected intravenously (i.v.) with parental PC14 cells.21 Recent karyotypic analysis of the PC14PE6 cells ruled out contamination with murine cells (personal communication, Dr. S. Pathak, M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX). The human lung squamous cell carcinoma cell line H226 was obtained from Dr. J. D. Minna (University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX).22 Tumor cells were maintained in Eagle’s minimal essential medium (MEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, sodium pyruvate, nonessential amino acids, L-glutamine, twofold vitamin solution, and penicillin-streptomycin (CMEM; Flow Laboratories, Rockville, MD) and incubated at 37°C in 5% CO2/95% air. The cultures were free of Mycoplasma and pathogenic murine viruses (assayed by Microbiological Associates, Bethesda, MD).
Reagents
Recombinant human (rh) VEGF165 and VEGF121 proteins and anti-human VEGF polyclonal Ab were purchased from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN).
Mice
Athymic Ncr-nu/nu male mice were purchased from the Animal Production Area of the National Cancer Institute, Frederick Cancer Research Facility (Frederick, MD). The mice were maintained in a barrier-type facility approved by the American Association for Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care and in accordance with current regulations and standards of the United States Departments of Agriculture and Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health.
Model for PE
Monolayer cultures of PC14 and PC14PE6 cells were harvested by pipetting. H226 cells were harvested after a 2-minute exposure to a 0.25% trypsin-0.02% EDTA solution. The cells were washed twice with Ca2+- and Mg2+-free Hanks’ balanced salt solution (HBSS) and resuspended in HBSS. Cell viability was determined by the trypan blue dye exclusion test, and only single-cell suspensions of >90% viability were used for the in vivo studies. To produce lung lesions and PE, tumor cells (1 x 106/300 µl HBSS) were injected into the lateral tail vein of unanesthetized nude mice.21 In some experiments, tumor cells were injected directly into the thoracic cavity (intrathoracic injection; i.t.).21 At different times after tumor cell injection, mice were euthanized, the subclavian artery was severed, and blood was harvested. The chest wall was carefully resected, and PE was harvested and measured using a 1-ml syringe. The blood and PE were centrifuged for 20 minutes (100 x g) at 4°C. The serum and supernatant of PE were stored at -70°C until an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was performed. The lungs were fixed in Bouin’s solution, and the lung tumor lesions were counted under a dissecting microscope.
mRNA Analysis
Polyadenylated mRNA was extracted from 107 to 108 tumor cells growing under sparse (<100 cells/mm2) and confluent (>1200 cells/mm2) conditions using the FastTrack mRNA isolation kit (Invitrogen, San Diego, CA). In some experiments, total RNA was extracted from 1 x 106 tumor cells from confluent cultures using TRI Reagent (Molecular Research Center, Inc., Cincinnati, OH). Total RNA (10 µg) or mRNA (3 µg) was electrophoresed on a 1% denaturing formaldehyde/agarose gel, transferred to a GeneScreen nylon membrane (DuPont Co., Boston, MA), and UV cross-linked with 120,000 µJ/cm2 using a UV Stratalinker 1800 (Stratagene, La Jolla, CA). Hybridizations were performed as described previously.16,19 Nylon filters were washed twice at 60 to 65°C with 0.1% standard saline citrate (SSC) and 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate. The mRNA expression level was quantified by densitometry of autoradiographs with the use of Image Quant software (Molecular Dynamics, Sunnyvale, CA); the value for each sample was taken to be the ratio of the average of the areas for the specific mRNA transcripts to the area of the 1.3-kb GAPDH mRNA transcript in the linear range of the film.
Determination of VEGF/VPF, Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor (bFGF), and Interleukin-8 (IL-8) Protein Level
The protein level of VEGF/VPF, bFGF, and IL-8 in culture supernatants, mouse serum, and PE was determined using ELISA kits according to the manufacturer’s instructions (R&D Systems). Preliminary experiments confirmed that the ELISA kit for VEGF/VPF detected both VEGF165 and VEGF121 proteins.
In Situ mRNA Hybridization Technique
Specific oligonucleotide DNA probes in the antisense orientation were designed complementary to the mRNA transcripts of the VEGF/VPF genes based on published reports of the cDNA sequence TGGTGATGTTGGACTCCTCAGTGGGCU, 57.7% guanosine-cytosine (GC) content. The specificity of the oligonucleotide sequence was initially determined by a GenBank European Molecular Biology Library database search with the use of the Genetics Computer Group sequence analysis program (GCG, Madison, WI) based on the FastA algorithm. The specificity of the sequence was confirmed by Northern blot analysis. A poly d(T)20 oligonucleotide was used to verify the integrity of mRNA in each sample. All DNA probes were synthesized with six biotin molecules (hyperbiotinylated) at the 3' end via direct coupling, with the use of standard phosphoramidite chemistry (Research Genetics, Huntsville, AL). The staining for in situ mRNA hybridization was performed exactly as described previously.23 A positive enzymatic reaction in this assay stained red. Known positive controls were used in each hybridization reaction. Controls for endogenous alkaline phosphate included treatment of the sample in the absence of the biotinylated probe and use of chromogen alone.
Histology and Immunohistochemistry
Lungs of nude mice harvested at necropsy were cut into 5-mm fragments and placed into either buffered 10% formalin solution or OCT compound (Miles Laboratories, Elkhart, IN) to be snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen. For VEGF/VPF staining, tissue sections (4 µm thick) of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded specimens were deparaffinized in xylene, rehydrated in graded alcohol, transferred to PBS, and treated with pepsin for 20 minutes at room temperature. For CD31 staining, frozen tissue sections (8 µm thick) were fixed with cold acetone. The slides were rinsed twice with PBS and endogenous peroxidase was blocked by use of 3% hydrogen peroxide in PBS for 12 minutes. The samples were washed three times with PBS and incubated for 10 minutes at room temperature with a protein-blocking solution consisting of PBS (pH 7.5) containing 5% normal horse serum and 1% normal goat serum. Excess blocking solution was drained, and the samples were incubated for 18 hours at 4°C with a 1:400 dilution of rabbit polyclonal anti-VEGF/VPF Ab (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, CA) or a 1:100 dilution of rat monoclonal anti-CD31 Ab (Pharmingen, San Diego, CA). The samples were then rinsed four times with PBS and incubated for 60 minutes at room temperature with the appropriate dilution of peroxidase-conjugated anti-rabbit IgG or anti-rat IgG. The slides were rinsed with PBS and incubated for 5 minutes with diaminobenzidine (Research Genetics). The sections were then washed three times with distilled water and counterstained with Gill’s hematoxylin. Sections (4 µm thick) of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tumors were also stained with hematoxylin-eosin for routine histological examination.
Zymography
Tumor cells were cultured for 24 hours in MEM containing 10% FBS. The cultures (30–50% confluence) were washed twice with PBS and incubated in serum-free MEM for another 24 hours, when the conditioned medium was harvested, spun at 1000 x g for 10 minutes, and used for substrate gel electrophoresis.24 The samples were normalized by protein content and applied without reduction to a 7.5% polyacrylamide slab gel impregnated with 1 mg/ml gelatin (Sigma, St. Louis, MO). After electrophoresis, the gel was washed at room temperature for 30 minutes in washing buffer (50 mmol/L Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 2.5% Triton X-100) and incubated overnight at 37°C with shaking in the developing buffer (50 mmol/L Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 15 mmol/L CaCl2, 1 µmol/L ZnCl2, 1% Triton X-100). The gel was stained with a solution of 0.5% Coomassie brilliant blue R-250. Clear zones against the blue background indicated the presence of gelatinolytic activity.
Vascular Density
The density of blood vessels in lung lesions was determined in tissue sections stained with anti-CD31 antibodies. Areas containing the highest number of capillaries and small venules were identified by scanning the tumor sections at low power (40x). Individual vessels were counted in multiple 100x fields (10x objective and 10x ocular; 0.145-mm2/field). According to the criteria described by Weidner et al,25 observation of a vessel lumen was not required for a structure to be classified as a vessel.
Vascular Permeability Assay
To evaluate permeability of vessels in the thoracic cavity, we
injected mice that had lung tumors i.v. with 200 µl of 0.5% Evans
blue dye, which binds to endogenous serum albumin as a
tracer.26-28
Thirty minutes later, the diaphragm was
harvested and dye extravasation was evaluated and photographed using an
Axioplan2 microscope (Carl Zeiss Inc., Thornwood, NY) equipped with an
HBO 100 Hg lamp at excitation 546
and emission 590.
To evaluate the bioactivity of VEGF/VPF secreted by tumor cells, we used the Miles assay adapted to the mouse skin.27 To reduce any individual variation, nude mice without downy hair were kept apart during the assay. The mice were injected i.v. with 200 µl of 0.5% Evans blue dye. Ten minutes later, serum-free culture supernatants of tumor cells (106 cells/48 hours in MEM 50 µl) were injected intradermally in several rows on the dorsal skin. Thirty minutes later, the mice were killed, the skin removed, and test sites were photographed. Each sample was tested in three different mice.
VEGF/VPF Isoforms
First-strand cDNA was synthesized from 1 µg total RNA using a First Strand Synthesis Kit (Pharmacia, Piscataway, NJ) in 33 µl of reaction mixture, according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The synthesized first-strand cDNA (1 µl) was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in a final volume of 50 µl containing 10 mmol/L Tris-HCl, 3 mmol/L MgCl2, 50 mmol/L KCl, 0.01% gelatin, 200 mmol/L dNTP, 50 pmol of each primer, and 2.5 U of AmpliTaq Gold Taq polymerase (Perkin Elmer, Foster City, CA). Sequences of VEGF/VPF primers used were sense, 5'-TCCAGGAGTACCCTGATGAG-3' and antisense, 5'-CTTTCCTGGTGAGAGATCTGG-3' immediately flanking the region of the VEGF/VPF open reading frame involved in the alternative splicing of several exons. PCR amplification of VEGF/VPF cDNA was performed under the following conditions: 30 cycles of 1 minute at 94°C, 1 minute at 58°C, 1 minute at 72°C. Before the first cycle, an 8-minute denaturation step at 95°C was included, and after 30 cycles the extension step was prolonged to 7 minutes at 72°C.29
Subcloning of the VEGF165 Gene into pcDNA3 and Transfection Procedures
The full-length cDNA for VEGF165, a gift from Dr. Judith Abrahams (Scios Nova, Mountain View, CA), was subcloned into the BamHI site of pcDNA3, a eukaryotic expression vector driven by the human cytomegalovirus promoter (Invitrogen). Subcloning into the BamHI restriction site yielded an insert in the sense orientation. The orientation and proof of completeness of the insert were determined by DNA sequencing. Sense VEGF121 expression vector was obtained as described previously.29
H226 cells plated at a density of 2 x 105cells/100-mm dish were transfected and incubated for 12 hours with the sense VEGF165 or sense VEGF121 genes using a stable mammalian transfection kit (Strategene, La Jolla, CA), and then washed and fed with fresh CMEM. Selection for resistance to neomycin was begun 48 hours after transfection by adding 250 µg G418/ml (Life Technologies, Grand Island, NY). This medium was replaced every 3 days, and 3 weeks later, single G418-resistant colonies were transferred to individual wells of a 48-well plate. The expression of VEGF/VPF in individual clones was identified by Northern blot analysis.
Statistical Analysis
The significance of differences in microvessel density and the in vitro data was analyzed by the Student’s t-test (two-tailed). Differences in the number of lung lesions and in volume of PE were compared by using the Mann-Whitney U test.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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In the first set of experiments, human NSCLC cells were injected
i.v. into nude mice. The production of lung lesions and induction of PE
are summarized in Table 1
. Five of 10
mice receiving an i.v. injection of PC14 cells had lung lesions
measuring 1 to 4 mm in diameter (median survival, 110 days; range,
93–120 days). Four of the tumor-positive mice developed bloody PE
(0.5–1.6 x 106
RBC/µl PE). All 20 mice
given an i.v. injection of the highly aggressive variant PC14PE6 cell
line developed rapidly progressive lesions at the surface of the lung.
Some of the lesions >5 mm in diameter invaded the pleural space.
Moreover, all of the mice injected with the PC14PE6 cells developed
bloody PE (0.9–2.2 x 106
RBC/µl PE).
Many of these mice had severe symptoms such as cyanosis and tachypnea.
The median survival of the mice in this group was 45 days. All mice
receiving an i.v. injection of H226 cells developed numerous 1- to 2-mm
lesions within the lung parenchyma. No lesions extended into the
pleural cavity. These mice had no PE and survived more than 12 weeks
(median survival, 92 days; range, 84–97 days). The growth pattern of
the PC14PE6 adenocarcinoma cells and the H266 squamous carcinoma cells
recapitulated that found in patients. Lung squamous cell carcinomas
tend to grow in the center of the lungs and are late to produce
metastasis, whereas lung adenocarcinomas are usually located at the
periphery of the lung and spread toward the pleural
surface.2
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. In sharp contrast, 4 weeks after the
i.t. injection of PC14PE6 cells, all mice had progressive tumor lesions
in the lung and pleura with a large volume of PE (Table 1)
. These data
show that regardless of the route of injection, PC14PE6 cells produce
PE, whereas H226 cells do not. Expression of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs), Tissue Inhibitors of Metalloproteinases (TIMPs), and Urokinase-Type Plasminogen Activator (uPA)
Since the invasive potential of tumor cells is regulated by the
balance between MMPs and their inhibitors, TIMPs,30
we evaluated the expression of MMP-2 and -9 in sparse and confluent
cultures of PC14, PC14PE6, and H226 cells by gelatin zymography. The
expression of uPA, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 was determined by Northern blot
analysis (Figure 1)
. PC14 and PC14PE6
cells constitutively expressed MMP-2 protein, whereas H226 cells
expressed both MMP-2 and -9 proteins (Figure 2A)
. The highly invasive PC14 and PC14PE6
cells expressed high levels of uPA and TIMP-1, but not of TIMP-2, the
inhibitor of MMP-2 (Figure 2B)
. In contrast, the H226 cells (low
invasive potential) expressed low levels of TIMP-1, high levels of
TIMP-2, and no uPA (Figure 2B)
.
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We previously reported that the expression level of VEGF/VPF was
directly associated with production of ascites by human ovarian cancer
cells.19
Using Northern blot and ELISA, we next determined
whether formation of PE in nude mice directly correlated with VEGF/VPF
production by the NSCLC cells. Since expression of VEGF/VPF is cell
density-dependent,31
the PC14, PC14PE6, and H226 cells
were cultured under both sparse and confluent conditions. All three
cell lines expressed higher levels of VEGF/VPF mRNA in confluent
culture conditions than in sparse conditions (Figure 2A)
. Regardless of
confluence, PC14 and PC14PE6 cells expressed higher levels of VEGF/VPF
mRNA and protein than did H226 cells (Figure 2B)
. H226 cells expressed
higher levels of bFGF mRNA or protein than did PC14 or PC14PE6 cells.
No discernible differences in IL-8 expression were found among the
three cell lines.
In Vivo Expression of Angiogenic Cytokines
We next measured the levels of VEGF/VPF, bFGF, and IL-8 in the
serum of nude mice injected with PC14, PC14PE6, or H226 cells and the
PE from mice with PC14 or PC14PE6 lung tumors (mice injected with H226
had no PE). Although VEGF/VPF was not detected in the serum of mice
bearing PC14 or PC14PE6 lung tumors, the PE from these mice contained
more than 30 ng/ml of VEGF/VPF (Table 2)
.
Low levels of IL-8 and bFGF were detected in the serum of mice with
PC14 or PC14PE6 lung tumors and tenfold higher levels of IL-8 and bFGF
were detected in the bloody PE. These results suggest that angiogenic
cytokines (VEGF/VPF, bFGF, and IL-8) were produced in the thoracic
cavity, presumably by PC14 or PC14PE6 cells. No VEGF/VPF, bFGF, or IL-8
was detected in the serum of mice with actively growing H226 human
squamous cell lung cancer.
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. VEGF/VPF mRNA
expression in PC14PE6 tumor cells was significantly higher than in H226
lung tumors. Consistent with the mRNA expression, more VEGF/VPF protein
was detected in PC14PE6 tumors than in H226 tumors. Both PC14PE6 and
H226 tumors expressed similar levels of bFGF and IL-8 mRNA and proteins
(data not shown). The PC14PE6 tumors contained a higher number of blood
vessels than the H226 tumors (number of CD31-positive vessels/100x
field = 43 ± 3 vs. 16 ± 4, respectively;
P < 0.05).
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Since VEGF/VPF produced by tumor cells can induce vascular
hyperpermeability, and hence ascites,17,18
we next
examined whether vascular hyperpermeability is associated with PE. Nude
mice were injected i.v. with PC14PE6 or H226 cells (1 x
106). After 6 weeks, 0.5% Evans blue dye (200
µl), which binds to endogenous albumin as a
tracer,26-28
was injected i.v. into the mice. Thirty
minutes later, the mice were killed, their diaphragms were carefully
harvested, and the leaking of Evans blue dye from vessels lining the
pleural surface was examined under fluorescent microscopy.
Evans blue dye leaked from the vessels in the diaphragm of mice with
PC14PE6 lung tumors and PE, but not in mice with the H226 lung tumors
(Figure 3)
. These data clearly show that PE is associated with
increased vascular permeability.
Transfection with the Sense or Antisense VEGF/VPF Gene
To provide definitive causal evidence for the role of VEGF/VPF in
formation of PE, we transfected the sense VEGF/VPF gene into the H226
squamous cell carcinoma cells (VEGF/VPF low producing cells). Because
VEGF/VPF consists of at least four isoforms (VEGF121, VEGF165, VEGF189,
and VEGF206),9
we first determined by reverse
transcriptase (RT)-PCR which isoform was predominantly expressed in the
H226 and PC14PE6 cells. As shown in Figure 4A
, VEGF121 and VEGF165 were the
predominant isoforms expressed in the cell lines tested, although the
magnitude of VEGF/VPF expression in the H226 cells was less than that
in the PC14PE6 cells. For this reason, we elected to transfect the
sense VEGF165 and sense VEGF121 genes into different H226 cells.
Because the VEGF165 isoform contains all of the coding sequence of the
VEGF121 isoform,32
PC14PE6 cells were transfected with
only the antisense VEGF165 gene. Cells transfected with only pcDNA3
vector served as controls (Neo-control). Stable transfectants were
obtained subsequent to selection and cloning in medium containing G418.
The in vitro proliferation of the transfectants did not
differ from parental or Neo-control cells (data not shown). Northern
blot analysis showed that H226 cells transfected with the sense VEGF165
or sense VEGF121 genes (H226/V165 and H226/V121, respectively)
expressed VEGF/VPF mRNA at 0.6 and 0.45 kb, respectively (Figure 4B)
,
and the transfectants with antisense VEGF165 (PC14PE6/AS28 and
PC14PE6/AS39) expressed the antisense VEGF/VPF mRNA (0.6 kb; Figure 4C
). The expression of VEGF/VPF mRNA (3.7 and 1.4 kb) in the
anti-sense-transfected clones was inhibited by 70 to 80% as compared
to parental PC14PE6 or PC14PE6/Neo cells.
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, the culture
supernatants from H226/V165 and H226/V121 cells, as well as rhVEGF165
and rhVEGF121, augmented vascular permeability, but those from H226 or
H226/Neo cells did not. On the other hand, culture supernatants from
PC14PE6 and PC14PE6/Neo cells increased vascular permeability, but
those from PC14PE6/AS28 or PC14PE6/AS39 cells did not. Collectively,
the results indicate that VEGF/VPF produced by sense VEGF/VPF gene
transfectants was biologically active and that antisense VEGF/VPF gene
transfection inhibited VEGF/VPF activity.
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Next, we injected control H226 cells transfected with either the
sense VEGF165 or the sense VEGF121 gene i.v. into nude mice. H226/V165
and H226/V121 cells produced as many lung tumor colonies as the
parental H226 or H226/Neo cells. Regardless of VEGF expression, none of
the mice developed PE. In sharp contrast to lesions established by
PC14PE6 cells, all H226 cell lines produced lesions in the lung
parenchyma without invading the visceral pleura (Figure 4)
. To
compensate for the lack of pleural invasion, we injected the H226 cells
directly into the thoracic cavity of nude mice. The H226/V165 and
H226/V121 cells produced a significant volume of PE in many of the
injected mice, whereas the i.t. implanted parental H226 or H226/Neo
cells did not (Table 3
and Figure 5B
).
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. The antisense VEGF165 gene
transfectants injected i.t. were tumorigenic but produced fewer lung
lesions (corresponding to tumor progression) and lower incidence and
volume of PE than did parental PC14PE6 or PC14PE6/Neo cells. Lung tumor
lesions produced by antisense VEGF165 gene transfectants contained
fewer blood vessels than did those produced by control cells. The
number of CD31-positive vessels/100x field for PC14PE6/Neo and
PC14PE6/AS39 cells was 46 ± 5 and 26 ± 5, respectively
(P < 0.001).
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and H226/V121 (data not shown) cells injected
into the pleural space produced more VEGF/VPF protein than did lesions
produced by control H226/Neo cells. Vessels in the diaphragm of mice
with H226/V165 lung tumors were leaky, whereas those in mice with
H226/Neo lung lesions were not, suggesting vascular hyperpermeability
in mice bearing sense VEGF/VPF gene-transfected cells. Lung tumors
produced by i.v. injection of cells transfected with an antisense
VEGF165 gene produced a lower level of VEGF/VPF protein than did tumors
produced by PC14PE6/Neo cells. Vessels in the diaphragm of mice with
PC14PE6/Neo, but not PC14PE6/AS39 cells, leaked Evans blue dye. |
Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The human lung squamous cell carcinoma H226 cells produced numerous
tumor foci in the lung without PE, even when the cells were injected
directly into the thoracic cavity. There are two causes of this
failure. First, the cells do not invade the pleura. Second, the cells
produce low levels of VEGF/VPF. We base this conclusion on the
following evidence. First, low VEGF/VPF producing parental H226 cells
injected directly into the thoracic cavity failed to develop PE even
though they produced lesions in the lung and solid tumors in the
thoracic cavity. Second, H226 cells transfected with the sense VEGF/VPF
gene (VEGF/VPF high producing) injected i.v. produced numerous lung
tumor lesions but no PE. Third, sense VEGF/VPF gene-transfected H226
cells injected directly into the thoracic cavity produced PE. Thus, the
production of PE is associated with a high level of VEGF/VPF production
in the thoracic cavity. VEGF/VPF was not detected in the serum of mice,
even though the PE contained more than 30 ng/ml VEGF/VPF protein (Table 2)
, suggesting a short life of VEGF/VPF.
VEGF/VPF consists of at least four isoforms (VEGF121, VEGF165, VEGF189, and VEGF206) arising through alternative mRNA splicing of a single gene.9,36 The smaller VEGF121 and VEGF165 isoforms are the secreted forms, whereas the larger VEGF189 and VEGF206 isoforms tend to remain cell-associated,36 with VEGF121 and VEGF165 isoforms more abundant and biologically potent.9 In this study, i.t. injection of H226 cells transfected with sense VEGF165 or sense VEGF121 genes induced 78% and 33% incidence of PE, respectively, and both rhVEGF165 and rhVEGF121 proteins augmented vascular hyperpermeability as measured by the Miles assay. Thus, both VEGF165 and VEGF121 can induce hyperpermeability and facilitate formation of PE. Consistent with a previous report27 that antisense VEGF/VPF gene transfection into human melanoma cells inhibits experimental lung metastasis, we found that transfection of an antisense VEGF165 gene into PC14PE6 cells inhibited lung metastasis, in this case by suppressing vascularization. These findings suggest that VEGF/VPF is essential but not sufficient for lung metastasis formation of PC14 and PC14PE6 cells.
Although both H226 and PC14PE6 cells injected i.v. produced lesions in
the lung parenchyma, only PC14PE6 cells invaded the pleura and caused
pleuritis. Because tumor invasion is regulated by various molecules,
including MMPs37
and uPA,38
we examined the
expression of MMP-2, MMP-9, and uPA in the human NSCLC lines. The
production of PE did not correlate with collagenase activity as
measured by gelatin zymography. In culture, the noninvasive H226 cells
produced both MMP-2 and -9, whereas PC14PE6 cells produced only MMP-2.
The H226 cells, however, expressed high levels of TIMP-2 (inhibitor of
MMP-2), whereas the PC14PE6 cells did not. The differences in uPA
expression correlated with the biological behavior of the tumor cells.
Consistent with a previous report showing that malignant PE contains
high levels of uPA,39
the PC14PE6 cells expressed a high
level of uPA, whereas the H226 cells did not (Figure 3)
. Further
determination of the role of uPA in invasion of lung cancer cells and
formation of PE is underway.
Regardless of the level of VEGF/VPF production, the PC14PE6 cells developed malignant PE more rapidly and reproducibly than H226 cells transfected with the sense VEGF/VPF genes, suggesting that PE formation is multifactorial. Because PE formation is associated with impaired drainage of the pleural space due to obstruction of vessels and lymphatics of the lungs and pleura,40 the degree of obstruction of vessels and lymphatics caused by H226 and PC14PE6 cells might be different. The other defined mechanism is increased pleural fluid formation,40 the mechanism of which is the focus of our study. Our data suggest that VEGF/VPF is essential and sufficient for pleural fluid formation in the squamous H226 cell model; however, the presence of other cofactors with VEGF/VPF might also increase pleural fluid formation additively or synergistically. One candidate is VEGF-C, a recently discovered member of the VEGF/VPF family. It has 30% homology to VEGF16541 and has been reported to stimulate the release of nitric oxide from endothelial cells and increase vascular permeability.42 Northern blot analysis failed, however, to demonstrate VEGF-C mRNA in any of the cell lines (unpublished data).
Lung cancer is the leading cause of malignant PE. At least 25% of all patients with lung cancer will develop PE at some time during the course of the disease.3,43 Standard treatment for PE is drainage followed by instillation of sclerosing agents, but the clinical efficacy of this treatment varies.7 In this study, we demonstrate that VEGF/VPF is responsible for PE formation by NSCLC cells in an animal model. Indeed, the level of VEGF/VPF in malignant PE of lung cancer patients is significantly higher than that in PE caused by nonmalignant diseases including heart failure and pulmonary tuberculosis.44 Hence, targeting the production of VEGF/VPF and/or blocking the VEGF/VPF receptor may be a way to control malignant PE in lung cancer patients.
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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Supported in part by Cancer Center Support Core grant CA16672 and grant R35-CA424107 (to I. J. F.) from the National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health.
Accepted for publication August 28, 2000.
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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 Q. Li, S. Yano, H. Ogino, W. Wang, H. Uehara, Y. Nishioka, and S. Sone The Therapeutic Efficacy of Anti Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Antibody, Bevacizumab, and Pemetrexed against Orthotopically Implanted Human Pleural Mesothelioma Cells in Severe Combined Immunodeficient Mice Clin. Cancer Res., October 1, 2007; 13(19): 5918 - 5925. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Sandler Bevacizumab in Non Small Cell Lung Cancer Clin. Cancer Res., August 1, 2007; 13(15): 4613s - 4616s. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 I. Kalomenidis, A. Kollintza, I. Sigala, A. Papapetropoulos, S. Papiris, R. W. Light, and C. Roussos Angiopoietin-2 Levels Are Elevated in Exudative Pleural Effusions Chest, May 1, 2006; 129(5): 1259 - 1266. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. T. Stathopoulos, Z. Zhu, M. B. Everhart, I. Kalomenidis, W. E. Lawson, S. Bilaceroglu, T. E. Peterson, D. Mitchell, F. E. Yull, R. W. Light, et al. Nuclear Factor-{kappa}B Affects Tumor Progression in a Mouse Model of Malignant Pleural Effusion Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., February 1, 2006; 34(2): 142 - 150. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Yano, H. Muguruma, Y. Matsumori, H. Goto, E. Nakataki, N. Edakuni, H. Tomimoto, S. Kakiuchi, A. Yamamoto, H. Uehara, et al. Antitumor Vascular Strategy for Controlling Experimental Metastatic Spread of Human Small-Cell Lung Cancer Cells with ZD6474 in Natural Killer Cell-Depleted Severe Combined Immunodeficient Mice Clin. Cancer Res., December 15, 2005; 11(24): 8789 - 8798. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. B. Guo, I. Kalomenidis, M. Hawthorne, K. S. Parman, K. B. Lane, and R. W. Light Pleurodesis Is Inhibited by Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Antibody Chest, September 1, 2005; 128(3): 1790 - 1797. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Goto, S. Yano, Y. Matsumori, H. Ogawa, D. C. Blakey, and S. Sone Sensitization of Tumor-Associated Endothelial Cell Apoptosis by the Novel Vascular-Targeting Agent ZD6126 in Combination with Cisplatin Clin. Cancer Res., November 15, 2004; 10(22): 7671 - 7676. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Shiraga, S. Yano, A. Yamamoto, H. Ogawa, H. Goto, T. Miki, K. Miki, H. Zhang, and S. Sone Organ Heterogeneity of Host-derived Matrix Metalloproteinase Expression and Its Involvement in Multiple-Organ Metastasis by Lung Cancer Cell Lines Cancer Res., October 15, 2002; 62(20): 5967 - 5973. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Goto, S. Yano, H. Zhang, Y. Matsumori, H. Ogawa, D. C. Blakey, and S. Sone Activity of a New Vascular Targeting Agent, ZD6126, in Pulmonary Metastases by Human Lung Adenocarcinoma in Nude Mice Cancer Res., July 1, 2002; 62(13): 3711 - 3715. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 D. Fan, S. Yano, H. Shinohara, C. Solorzano, M. Van Arsdall, C. D. Bucana, S. Pathak, E. Kruzel, R. S. Herbst, A. Onn, et al. Targeted Therapy against Human Lung Cancer in Nude Mice by High-Affinity Recombinant Antimesothelin Single-Chain Fv Immunotoxin Mol. Cancer Ther., June 1, 2002; 1(8): 595 - 600. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. C. G. LEE, D. MELKERNEKER, P. J. THOMPSON, R. W. LIGHT, and K. B. LANE Transforming Growth Factor beta Induces Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Elaboration from Pleural Mesothelial Cells in Vivo and in Vitro Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., January 1, 2002; 165(1): 88 - 94. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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