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Regular Articles |
From the Divisions of Pulmonary and Critical Care
Medicine *
and Allergy and Infectious
Diseases
of the Department of
Medicine, the Department of Surgery,
and the
Department of Pathology,§
University of
Washington, Seattle, Washington
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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B activation. Our
goal was to determine whether local Fas activation produces acute lung
injury by inducing alveolar epithelial cell apoptosis and by generating
local inflammatory responses. Normal mice (C57BL/6) and mice deficient
in Fas (lpr) were treated by intranasal instillation of
the Fas-activating monoclonal antibody (mAb) Jo2 or an irrelevant
control mAb, and studied 6 or 24 hours later using
bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), histopathology, DNA
nick-end-labeling assays, and electron microscopy. Normal mice
treated with mAb Jo2 had significant increases in BAL protein at 6
hours, and BAL neutrophils at 24 hours, as compared to
lpr mice and to mice treated with the irrelevant mAb.
Neutrophil recruitment was preceded by increased mRNA expression for
tumor necrosis factor-
, macrophage inflammatory
protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein-2,
macrophage chemotactic protein-1, and
interleukin-6, but not interferon-
, transforming
growth factor-ß, RANTES, eotaxin,
or IP-10. Lung sections from Jo2-treated normal mice showed
neutrophilic infiltrates, alveolar septal thickening,
hemorrhage, and terminal dUTP nick-end-labeling-positive cells
in the alveolar septae and airspaces. Type II pneumocyte apoptosis was
confirmed by electron microscopy. Fas activation in vivo
results in acute alveolar epithelial injury and lung
inflammation, and may be important in the pathogenesis of acute
lung injury.
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Neutrophil apoptosis is generally
regarded as an anti-inflammatory process.12,13
However,
recent studies have shown that binding of Fas to an agonist, in
addition to triggering apoptosis, may also lead to activation of the
nuclear factor B under certain circumstances.14,15
This
cellular activation is in addition to its pro-apoptotic function and is
probably independent of apoptosis.16
Nuclear factor B
partially controls the expression of multiple inflammatory cytokines
and cell surface receptors, including the chemokines interleukin-8
(IL-8) and GRO in humans, as well as the murine GRO analogs
KC and macrophage inflammatory protein
(MIP)-2.17-21
The potential role of the Fas/FasL system as a dual
pro-apoptotic/pro-inflammatory system becomes relevant with the finding
that circulating levels of sFasL are present in certain human
diseases.22-28
Furthermore, sFasL is found in
bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid from patients with the acute
respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) at concentrations capable of
inducing apoptosis of primary human small airway epithelial cells
in vitro.29
Destruction of the alveolar
epithelium is one of the hallmarks of ARDS,30,31
but the
mechanisms that account for the epithelial injury that occurs in ARDS
remain unclear. Although it has been reported that repeated activation
of Fas in the lungs of mice results in pulmonary fibrosis after 2
weeks,32
the acute effects of Fas activation in the lungs
are unclear. We hypothesized that sFasL in the airspaces may contribute
to the pathogenesis of acute lung injury by inducing apoptosis of
epithelial cells, as well as by stimulating the release of inflammatory
cytokines via nuclear factor B activation.
The major goal of this study was to determine whether activation of Fas in the alveoli of the lungs would induce apoptosis of type II pneumocytes in the alveolar wall, and initiate an inflammatory response in the lungs. We treated normal mice or naturally occurring mutant mice deficient in Fas expression (lpr mice) with the monoclonal antibody (mAb) Jo2, which activates Fas on the surface of cells in vitro and in vivo.32,33 We identified apoptotic cells in the alveolar walls by DNA nick-end-labeling and electron microscopy, and the alveolar inflammatory response by quantitative histology, BAL, and cytokine ribonuclease protection assays (RPA).
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The activating anti-Fas mAb Jo2 (Armenian hamster IgG) and a control mAb (Armenian hamster anti-TNP IgG) were purchased from PharMingen (San Diego, CA). Both antibodies were free of azide and endotoxin, as determined by the manufacturer. In addition, the antibodies were confirmed to contain <0.01 endotoxin U/ml by the limulus amebocyte assay (ECL-1000; Biowhittaker, Walkersville, MD).
Animal Preparation
Male mice, weighing 20 to 30 g, were briefly anesthetized with inhaled halothane. Either mAb Jo2 or control mAb at a dose of 2.5 µg/g was administered to each mouse by intranasal instillation in a solution containing 1 mg/ml of mAb in sterile phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), as previously described.34 The animals were allowed to recover from anesthesia, returned to their cages, and given free access to water and food. At the end of the experiment the animals were euthanized with ketamine and xylazine, the thorax was rapidly opened and the animal was exsanguinated by direct cardiac puncture. The lungs were dissected free and the trachea was cannulated to perform BAL, or to fix the lungs, or to extract mRNA. The protocol was approved by the animal care committee of the University of Washington.
Experimental Protocols
We used male mice weighing 20 to 30 g. The mice were either C57BL/6 mice, (B&K Universal, Seattle, WA), or naturally occurring mutant mice lacking the Fas receptor (lpr mice) (Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME). The lpr mice are derived from the C57BL/6 mouse strain. The mice were treated with either the Fas-activating mAb Jo2 or an irrelevant mAb (hamster anti-TNP IgG) as described above, and euthanized at either 6 or 24 hours after the administration of the antibody. Studies with lpr mice were performed to confirm that effects observed with mAb Jo2 in C57BL/6 mice were specific for Fas activation. As an additional comparison, C57BL/6 were treated with an irrelevant mAb (hamster anti-TNP IgG) and euthanized at either 6 or 24 hours.
BAL Protocol
BAL was performed by instilling 0.9% NaCl containing 0.6 mmol/L ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid in two separate 0.5 ml aliquots. The fluid was recovered by gentle suction and placed on ice for immediate processing. An aliquot of the BAL fluid was processed immediately for total and differential cell counts. Total cell counts were performed with a hemocytometer, whereas differential cell counts were performed on cytospin preparations stained with modified Wright-Giemsa stain (Diff-Quik; American Scientific Products, McGaw Park, IL). The remainder of the lavage fluid was spun at 200 x g for 30 minutes, and the supernatant was removed aseptically and stored in individual aliquots at -70°C.
The total protein concentration in BAL fluid was measured using the bicinchoninic acid method (BCA assay; Pierce Co., Rockford, IL).
mRNA Extraction and RPA Protocol
Lung cytokine mRNA expression (RANTES, eotaxin, MIP-1,
MIP-2, IP-10, macrophage chemotactic protein-1 (MCP-1), tumor
necrosis factor-, interleukin-6, interferon-, transforming growth
factor-ß) was measured by RPA. Three mice were treated by intranasal
instillation of mAb Jo2 (2.5 µg/g), and three control mice were
treated with an irrelevant mAb. After 6 hours, the mice were euthanized
and their lungs excised. Lung RNA was extracted with Triazol (Biotecx
Laboratories, Inc., Houston, TX) according to the vendor’s
instructions. RPA was performed using an RPAII kit (Ambion Inc.,
Austin, TX), with MCK-3 and MCK-5 template sets (Pharmingen, San Diego,
CA) and [-32P]UTP according to the
manufacturer’s instructions. Samples were run under denaturing
electrophoresis on 5% polyacrylamide gel, then imaged and analyzed in
a Packard Cyclone Phosphorimager (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech,
Piscataway, NJ). To control for relative differences in RNA loading
between samples, the specific cytokine mRNA signals were normalized to
the intensity of the respective glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
dehydrogenase signal. Results are expressed as relative mRNA expression
(mean ± SEM), using the following equation: normalized Jo2
induced expression (n = 3)/normalized control
expression (n = 3).
Histopathology Protocols
The lungs were fixed by inflation with 10% neutral-buffered formalin at a transpulmonary pressure of 15 cm H2O and embedded in paraffin. Within 24 hours of fixation, lung sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin for light microscopy, or by the DNA nick-end-labeling assay to evaluate apoptotic cells, or processed for transmission electron microscopy as described below.
DNA Nick-End-Labeling Assay
The slides were submerged in 10% neutral-buffered formalin for 10 minutes, followed by 70% ethanol for 5 minutes. The slides were rehydrated for 10 minutes in PBS and treated with 0.002% proteinase K (Sigma, St. Louis, MO.) in double-distilled water for 5 to 15 minutes at room temperature. Endogenous peroxidase was quenched by placing the slides in 2% hydrogen peroxide for 5 minutes. For equilibration, the slides were treated in Klenow labeling buffer (TACS In situ Apoptosis Detection Kit; Trevigen Inc., Gaithersburg, MD) for at least 1 minute and then incubated for 60 minutes at 37°C with Klenow enzyme and Klenow dNTP mix in Klenow labeling buffer (all reagents from Trevigen, Inc.) prepared according to instructions from the manufacturer. Negative control slides were incubated with the labeling mixture without the Klenow enzyme. After incubation the slides were completely submerged in Klenow Stop buffer (Trevigen Inc.) for 5 minutes at room temperature and rinsed in PBS for 2 minutes. The samples were then treated for 15 minutes with streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase detection solution (Trevigen Inc.), washed twice for 2 minutes in PBS and incubated in diaminobenzidine (Trevigen Inc.) for 7 minutes at room temperature. The samples were then rinsed twice in distilled water and stained with 1% methyl green in 0.1 mol/L sodium acetate (pH 4.0) for 5 minutes, quickly dehydrated in 95% and 100% ethanol, cleared in xylene, and mounted with Permount (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA).
Electron Microscopy
Lung tissue was fixed for electron microscopy by immersion in 6.25% glutaraldehyde, 2% paraformaldehyde in 0.1 mol/L sodium cacodylate buffer for 2 hours. The tissue was postfixed in 2% potassium-ferrocyanide in distilled water for 4 hours at room temperature, rinsed with distilled water, stained with 0.5% uranyl acetate for 20 minutes, and then rinsed in distilled water. The samples were dehydrated in a graded series of ethanol solutions and embedded in Eponate 12 (Ted Pella Inc., Redding, CA). Thin sections were cut from two randomly selected blocks with a diamond knife using an LKB Nova ultramicrotome and collected on parlodion-coated 200 mesh copper grids (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Fort Washington, PA.). The sections were stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate and examined with a JEOL TEM 1200 EX at a magnification of x3000 or higher. Only cells with a recognizable nucleus were included in the analysis. For each sample several sections from at least two electron microscopic blocks were used for evaluation.
Lung Injury Score
Each slide was evaluated by two separate investigators (GMB and
WCL) in a blinded manner. To generate the lung injury score, a total of
300 alveoli were counted on each slide at x400 magnification. Within
each field, points were assigned according to predetermined criteria
(Table 1)
. All of the points for each
category were added and weighted according to their relative
importance. The injury score was calculated according to the following
formula: injury score = [(alveolar hemorrhage points/no. of
fields) + 2 x (alveolar infiltrate points/no. of fields) + 3
x (fibrin points/no. of fields) + (alveolar septal congestion/no. of
fields)]/total number of alveoli counted.
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Comparisons between two groups were made with the two-tailed Fisher’s exact t-test. Comparisons between multiple groups were made with the Kruskall-Wallis analysis of variance and with factorial analysis of variance.35 For post hoc analysis, the Fisher’s test was used. A P value <0.05 was considered significant.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Six hours after intranasal instillation of mAb Jo2, the BAL total
protein concentration was significantly increased in C57BL/6 mice
(n = 5) as compared to the lpr mice
(n = 5), or to the C57BL/6 mice treated with an
irrelevant control mAb (n = 5) (Figure 1A)
. At 24 hours, all animal groups had
similar concentrations of total protein in the BAL fluid (Figure 1B)
.
|
. At 24 hours,
the number of BAL fluid PMN was significantly higher in C57BL/6 mice
treated with mAb Jo2 (n = 5), as compared to the
lpr group (n = 5), and to C57BL/6
animals treated with the control mAb (n = 5)
(Figure 2B)
.
|
. The cytokine expression was
normalized to the GADPH signal to control for loading differences.
Jo2-treated mice showed a sixfold increase in MIP-2 mRNA, a twofold
increase in MIP-1 mRNA, a fourfold increase in MCP-1 mRNA, a
threefold increase in tumor necrosis factor- mRNA, and a 60-fold
increase in interleukin-6 mRNA. In contrast, there was no increase
in message for transforming growth factor-ß, eotaxin, or IP-10. The
relative expression of RANTES and interferon- were significantly
decreased.
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At 24 hours, C57BL/6 mice treated with mAb Jo2
(n = 6) had a significantly higher lung injury
score than animals treated with the control mAb
(n = 7; P < 0.01) (Figure 4)
. The lung injury was characterized by
patchy areas of neutrophilic infiltrates with thickening of the
alveolar septae and areas of hemorrhage (Figure 5a)
. The majority of the cells
infiltrating the airspaces, as well as cells in the alveolar septae,
showed densely condensed nuclei suggesting apoptosis in areas of injury
(Figure 5b)
. No histopathological abnormalities were present in animals
that were treated with the control mAb (Figure 6, a and b)
.
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. In addition,
positive cells were present in the alveolar septae of areas of injury.
No positive cells were seen in the animals treated with the control mAb
(Figure 6, c and d)
.
By electron microscopy, the lungs of a mouse treated with mAb Jo2
showed features characteristic of apoptosis in alveolar type II cells.
These features included increased electron density of the cytoplasm,
condensation of the chromatin, and vacuolization of the nuclear
envelope (Figure 7)
.36-38
Interestingly, there were also mitochondrial abnormalities. Changes
consistent with apoptosis were not seen in any of the endothelial cells
that were identified.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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In humans, acute lung injury is characterized by epithelial and endothelial injury, neutrophilic alveolitis, and hyaline membrane formation. The primary event leading to lung injury in ARDS has not been established. A prevalent hypothesis is that the neutrophil mediates lung injury in ARDS.39 In this paradigm, uncontrolled neutrophil activation leads to the accumulation of oxidants and proteases in the lungs, which cause damage to the cells of the alveolar environment. However, neutrophils can migrate into the lungs of humans without causing injury, and large numbers of neutrophils can migrate into the lungs of sheep without causing injury to the tight epithelial barrier.40,41 Blockade of PMN chemoattractants or systemic PMN depletion blocks lung injury in some, but not all animal models.42-44 Although PMN may contribute to lung injury in some circumstances, it is not clear whether the first event leading to lung injury involves PMN migration, or whether epithelial injury occurs before leukocytes are involved.45 Answering this question is critical to designing specific therapeutic strategies for ARDS.
The present study shows that activation of the Fas system in vivo in the lungs of mice leads to a primary epithelial injury. We found that intranasal administration of the Fas-activating mAb Jo2 resulted in an early increase in the BAL fluid total protein concentration, followed later by PMN migration into the airspaces. The cells of the alveolar wall became apoptotic, as detected by DNA end-nick-labeling assays and electron microscopy. Thus in this model, damage to the alveolar epithelial barrier occurred first, before PMN recruitment. The possibility that the Fas system might be involved in epithelial damage during acute lung injury was raised by our previous findings that soluble FasL is elevated in BAL fluid from patients with ARDS at concentrations capable of inducing apoptosis of normal human distal lung epithelial cells in vitro, and that higher concentrations of soluble FasL in BAL fluid from patients on day 1 of ARDS are associated with increased mortality.29 An earlier study had demonstrated that a trypsin-sensitive pro-apoptotic factor (or factors) was present in BAL fluid obtained from patients during the late stage of ARDS, and that this factor was active for fibroblasts and endothelial cells.46
Several lines of evidence suggest that the Fas system causes apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells. The human neoplastic alveolar epithelial cell line A549 expresses Fas on its surface and undergoes apoptosis when exposed to activating anti-Fas IgM.7 Furthermore, we have found that normal human distal lung epithelial cells express Fas and become apoptotic when exposed to recombinant human soluble FasL.29 These results suggest that Fas-mediated apoptosis of the alveolar epithelium could be an initial event in the development of some forms of lung injury.
The activation of Fas in vivo also caused a sustained
inflammatory response characterized by initial activation of
pro-inflammatory cytokine genes, followed by neutrophil accumulation in
the airspaces. Leukocyte recruitment was seen at 24 hours, and was
preceded at 6 hours by increased mRNA expression for the
pro-inflammatory cytokines MIP-2, MIP-1, MCP-1, interleukin-6, and
tumor necrosis factor-. The expression of mRNA for the predominantly
T-lymphocyte cytokines, RANTES, eotaxin, and interferon-, was not
increased. Transforming growth factor-ß mRNA expression was also not
increased, which was surprising given the importance of the Fas/FasL
system in the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis.32,47
All
of the pro-inflammatory cytokines whose mRNA expression was
increased can be produced by activated monocytes/macrophages. We have
recently found that Fas transmits activation signals in normal human
monocytes and macrophages under conditions in which apoptosis is
inhibited (unpublished observations), strengthening the idea that Fas
activation can directly lead to monocyte/macrophage activation and
induction of inflammation. The late recruitment of PMN after Fas
activation stands in contrast to a similar murine model of intranasal
lipopolysaccharide instillation, in which PMN recruitment occurred as
early as 4 hours after lipopolysaccharide
administration.34
Thus, the main role of Fas ligand in the
lung inflammatory response might be in contributing to sustaining
inflammation, rather than triggering the initial, early response.
Our data suggest that the Fas/FasL system plays a more complex role in the inflammatory response and in the pathogenesis of lung injury than previously appreciated. Apoptosis has traditionally been considered as a mechanism promoting resolution of inflammation.13 However, recent findings suggest that Fas activation can result in an inflammatory response because of the release of inflammatory cytokines.14,15 Studies by Miwa and colleagues16 demonstrated that membrane-bound FasL can induce PMN infiltration in mice. Furthermore, soluble FasL itself has been reported to serve as a chemotactic factor for human and murine PMN, but the mechanism of this effect remains uncertain.48
The relative contribution of pro-apoptotic and pro-inflammatory activities is likely to depend on other mediators present in the microenvironment, as well as local concentrations of soluble FasL. Fas-induced PMN apoptosis is suppressed by granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF).6 During the early phase of ARDS, PMN apop-tosis is inhibited by G-CSF and GM-CSF present in the airspaces.49 During acute inflammation, the pro-apoptotic activity of FasL on PMN may be counteracted by G-CSF and GM-CSF, whereas its pro-inflammatory properties may contribute to PMN recruitment. However, epithelial cells, which express Fas but may lack corresponding anti-apoptotic receptors, undergo apoptosis which results in injury to the alveolar-epithelial barrier. Thus, the Fas/FasL system may serve a dual role in the pathogenesis of acute inflammatory injury by causing direct damage to the alveolar-epithelial barrier and by recruiting PMN to the site of injury.
In summary, the data show that Fas activation in vivo can lead to apoptosis of alveolar epithelial cells with changes in epithelial permeability, expression of inflammatory cytokines, and recruitment of PMN into the alveoli. The data also show that epithelial injury precedes leukocyte infiltration when Fas is activated. These findings are consistent with a dual role for the Fas/FasL system, as both a pro-inflammatory and a pro-apoptotic system in the lungs. The findings suggest a new paradigm for some forms of acute lung injury in which alveolar epithelial death is the critical initial factor that initiates inflammatory responses in the lungs.
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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Supported in part by grants GR 42686 (to R. K. W.), HL 30542 (to R. K. W., T. R. M.), AI 29103 (to T. R. M.), HL62995 (to W. C. L.), and GM 37696 (to T. R. M.) from the National Institutes of Health, the Medical Research Service of the Department of Veterans Affairs (to T. R. M.), and a research grant from the Amgen Corporation (to G. M. B., T. R. M.).
Accepted for publication September 18, 2000.
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B independently of its cytotoxic function. J Biol Chem 1996, 271:8991-8995This article has been cited by other articles:
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