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From the Center for Cell and Gene Therapy* and the Departments of Pediatrics, Orthopedic Surgery, and Pathology,¶ Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas; the Department of Orthopedics and Rehabilitation,|| University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas; and the Department of Bone Biology, Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Washington, DC
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Abstract |
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Attempts to prevent or treat aberrant bone formation have been restricted by the complexity and multiple causes of the disorder. Nonetheless, new therapies are being devised to target the inductive molecules that may trigger the process, the participating progenitor cells, and local tissue environments conducive to osteogenesis.1 Gene therapy with BMP antagonists seems especially promising because overexpression of BMP4 and underexpression of physiological BMP antagonists are common findings in some forms of heterotopic ossification.5 Because angiogenesis is absolutely required for endochondral bone formation and is a prominent feature of embryonic bone formation, fracture callus formation, and the preosseous lesions in fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, targeting new blood vessel formation with anti-angiogenic agents may slow or inhibit the production of heterotopic bone.6
To gain a more complete understanding of the factors that drive heterotopic ossification, we focused on the microenvironmental conditions needed to induce mesenchymal stem cells to differentiate to chondrocytes, which form the cartilaginous matrix essential to osteoblast recruitment and normal osteoid mineralization during endochondral bone formation. Several studies suggest that low oxygen tension critically influences chondrocyte differentiation by accelerating the growth of mesenchymal stem cells and promoting their commitment to the chondrocyte lineage, in part by up-regulating a program of chondrocyte-specific gene expression under the control of hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1).7-9 Although the requirement for low oxygen tension during the initial stages of endochondral bone formation is well accepted, the source of hypoxia in local tissue environments remains primarily undefined.
To address this issue, we relied on a model of heterotopic ossification10 in which human fibroblasts are transduced to express BMP2 and are then injected into a hind-leg muscle of non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient (NOD/SCID) mice.11,12 Heterotopic ossification is induced by a single injection of 5 x 106 fibroblasts (the MRC-5 human line transduced with Ad535 BMP2 or the MC3T3 mouse line transduced with Ad5 BMP2) into the quadriceps or soleus muscle of 6-week-old NOD/SCID mice11,13 or C57BL/6 mice.14 We have shown previously,12 by tracking human cells with an antibody against a mitochondrial protein not cross reactive with mouse, that the injected cells are gone by day 5 and are not directly incorporated into any structure at any stage of heterotopic bone formation. In those studies, we demonstrated that each intermediate structure (eg, cartilage) in the endochondral process that forms heterotopic bone as well as the final heterotopic bone itself consists entirely of cells derived from the host. In addition, we found that the nature of the cells used to produce BMP2 is irrelevant and that many different cell types (eg, lung, skin) can be used, the only relevant parameter being high-level BMP2 production. These findings also strongly support our conclusion that the injected cells serve only as factories for BMP2 production and nothing more. We have relied on this model rather than the use of purified BMP2 because of the known difficulties15 with this procedure, which include the requirement for large amounts of purified BMP2, short half-life of the BMP2, and the necessity of using a carrier, some of which (eg, Matrigel) have biological activity of their own. The local concentration of BMP2 in these studies is difficult to assess in vivo. We have previously published the kinetics of BMP2 production in vitro.11,12 We are currently trying to better assess the activity of BMP2 in vivo by staining cells with an antibody against phosphorylated SMAD that marks the response to BMP2.
BMP2 has been used extensively to induce bone formation in patients16
and differs from BMP4, a candidate inducer of heterotopic ossification,17
by only a single amino acid change (valine instead of alanine at position 152). Preliminary analysis of the tissue changes within the lesional area suggested that BMP2 released by the transduced fibroblasts recruits and stimulates mesenchymal elements to form mature marrow-containing bone (see Figure 1
). This model seems highly relevant to ectopic bone formation in humans because it relies on a BMP molecule that is virtually identical to BMP4 to stimulate endochondral bone formation in extraskeletal muscle. Indeed, both loss-of-function and gain-of-function studies have demonstrated the necessity and sufficiency of BMP2 and BMP4 in regulating the development of cartilage and bone.18
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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An Ad5 vector carrying an adenovirus type-35 fiber and a cDNA for BMP2 in the E1 region (Ad5F35-BMP2) was constructed, propagated, and purified as previously described.11,12 The control vector was Ad5F35-HM4, which lacks a transgene cassette but otherwise is identical to Ad5F35-BMP2. Ad5BMP211 and Ad5empty, an Ad5 vector lacking a transgene, were also used. MRC-5 human cells, a fetal lung diploid cell that undergoes 60 to 70 population doublings before senescence, was transduced with Ad5F35-BMP2 and injected into NOD/SCID mice. The Ad5-BMP2 vector was used to transduce the C57BL/6 mouse cell line MC3T3 to diminish immune response in these immunocompetent mice strains and was injected into either C57BL/6 or misty mice (C57BLKS/J-m; Jackson Laboratories, Bar Harbor, ME). Brown fat is completely absent from all expected locations in misty mice.23 This property was verified by staining for UCP-1, which was uniformly absent from these mice (data not shown).
Adenovirus transductions with Ad5F35 vectors were performed as previously described.11 MC3T3 cells were transduced with Ad5BMP2 in the presence of Genejammer,14 a critical procedure for the production of bone in C57BL/6 or misty mice. MC3T3 cells lack receptors for both Ad5 (CAR) and Ad5F35 (CD46) and, therefore, Genejammer was used to dramatically increase transduction of these cells.14 The transduced cells were injected into NOD/SCID, C57BL/6, or misty mice as previously described.11,12 The misty mouse is congenic with C57BL/6,23 and although it completely lacks brown fat,23 the nature of its genetic defect is unknown. Ad5F35-BMP2 was developed to transduce primary human cells (eg, MSCs, skin fibroblasts, MRC-5), which lack the receptor for Ad5, the coxsackie-adenovirus receptor (CAR), but retain the receptor (CD46) for adenovirus type 35. This vector was used in these studies only when the transduced human cells were to be injected into NOD/SCID mice, in which the immune response is less of a concern.
Ad5 is the standard adenovirus type used by most investigators. To conduct the experiments to compare bone formation in wild-type (C57BL/6) and mutant (misty derivative of C57BL/6) mice, we needed to transduce the cells such that the strong immune response in these immunocompetent mice would be minimized. Ad5BMP2 was used in these studies only to transduce MC3T3 cells for injection of BMP2-expressing murine cells into mice.
Histological Analysis
Decalcified, paraffin-embedded hindlimb (5-µm) sections were prepared by cutting in half the formalin-fixed and decalcified muscle tissue surrounding the site of injection before paraffin embedding and formation of blocks. Sections therefore started from the inner most part of the lesional tissue and continued outward in both directions. After deparaffinization, sections were treated for 5 minutes at room temperature with 0.3% Triton X-100 in Tris-buffered saline (19.98 mmol/L Tris, 136 mmol/L NaCl, pH 7.4), followed by a 10-minute treatment at 37°C with Digest-All 1 (Zymed, San Francisco, CA). When sections were stained using horseradish peroxidase, they were treated for 15 minutes at room temperature with peroxide block (Signet Laboratories, Detroit, MI). Sections were analyzed with a PowerVision Homo-Mouse IHC kit (ImmunoVision Technologies, Daly City, CA), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Both primary and secondary antibodies were bound for 30 minutes at room temperature. For double-antibody labeling, samples were treated simultaneously with the two primary antibodies followed by washing and simultaneous incubation with secondary antibodies, used at 1:000 dilution, to which either Alexa Fluor 488 (green) or Q-dot 525 (green) and Alexa Fluor 647 (red) or Q-dot 580 (red) had been conjugated. In experiments with mouse monoclonal antibodies, we used a Mouse on Mouse kit (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) and diluted both primary and secondary antibodies in mouse diluents according to the kit instructions except that in immunofluorescence experiments we omitted peroxidase and biotin/avidin blocking and detection of horseradish peroxidase. Primary antibodies to UCP-1 (rabbit polyclonal used at 1:1000 dilution; Chemicon, Temecula, CA), PGC-1
(mouse monoclonal used at 1:500 dilution; Chemicon), von Willebrand factor (rabbit polyclonal used at 1:200 dilution; Chemicon), and S-100 (rabbit polyclonal used at 1:3000 dilution; DAKO, Carpinteria, CA) were used. Horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibodies, either anti-rabbit or anti-mouse, were part of the PowerVision Homo-Mouse IHC kit and were used without dilution according to the instructions in the kit. Pimonidazole (Hypoxyprobe) and mouse Hypoxyprobe monoclonal antibody, used at a dilution of 1:500, were obtained as a kit from Chemicon and used according to the instructions. Sections were stained routinely with either hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) as described by the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology24
or, when developed with 3,3-diaminobenzidine, with hematoxylin alone.
Microcomputed Tomography (Micro-CT)
Specimens were scanned with a micro-CT system (eXplore Locus SP; General Electric, London, ON, Canada) at 14-µm resolution. Bone density was determined with a density calibration phantom. Three-dimensional reconstructions of the region injected with BMP2-producing cells were generated to identify regions of heterotopic ossification. The volume of heterotopic mineralized tissue was then calculated with use of the quantitative bone analysis software provided with the micro-CT system. For this analysis, any tissue with a density greater than 0.26 g/ml hydroxyapatite was considered mineralized tissue. The total volume of heterotopic mineralized tissue was measured for the right and left hind limbs, and the difference in values between the misty and C57BL/6 mice was assessed by standard t-test analysis.
Histomorphometry
Histomorphometry was performed on H&E-stained slides according to standardized protocols25 using the OsteoMeasure histomorphometry system (Osteometrics Inc., Atlanta, GA).
Microarray Analysis
RNA from the entire quadriceps muscle injected was isolated by the Trizol method from mice (n = 4) on each day for 7 days after injection of transduced MRC-5 cells. The integrity of each RNA was checked by either agarose gel electrophoresis or with an Agilent bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA). RNA concentrations were determined spectrophotometrically or with the bioanalyzer. The RNA from each animal was processed separately, the results were averaged, and standard deviations calculated for a given group on any day. Equal amounts of BMP2 and empty vector control RNAs were mixed in microarray hybridization procedures. Labeled cDNA (Cy5, BMP2; Cy3, empty vector control) was hybridized to an Agilent G4120A mouse developmental array containing 
40,000 genes. Slides were scanned either in an Agilent dual-laser DNA microarray scanner or in an Axon 4000A dual-channel scanner (Axon Instruments, Foster City, CA); the data were analyzed with either Agilent feature extraction software and Rosetta Resolver (Rosetta Biosoftware Products, Seattle, WA) or Gene Pix version 3.0 software (Axon Instruments).
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Results |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Four mice per experimental group were euthanized each day for 7 days, their tissues fixed in 10% neutral buffered formalin, and paraffin-embedded sections prepared for immunohistochemical analysis. Bone development in this heterotopic model followed a consistent pattern. Multilocular adipocytes were observed between muscle fibers as early as day 1 after injection (Figure 1a)
with nascent vascularization apparent by 3 or 4 days as indicated by leakage of red blood cells (Figure 1b)
or staining with von Willebrand factor (VWF; Figure 1b
, inset). Early bone development had progressed to the formation of a cartilaginous matrix with embedded chondrocytes by day 5 or 6 (Figure 1c)
, clearly evident with typical polygonal morphology and partial staining with Alcian blue (not shown) as well as staining with S-100, a chondrocyte-specific protein (Figure 1c
, inset).26
Mature bone was not evident until 7 days (Figure 1d)
, although infiltrating adipocytes could not be detected after day 5 or 6.
To characterize further the adipocytes seen on the first day after injection, we used a lipid droplet-specific reagent (Bodipy 493/502; Figure 2
, compare a and b) and a reagent that reacts specifically with mitochondria (MitoTracker, Figure 2c
). The results show that the smaller brown adipocytes (Figure 2c
, yellow arrows), evident only in mice injected with BMP2-producing cells, stain more heavily with this reagent than do the larger white adipocytes. Mice injected with cells transduced with Ad5F35-null produced little or no staining with MitoTracker (Figure 2d)
. We conclude that the infiltrating adipocytes contained abundant mitochondria in addition to multiple lipid droplets, features common to brown rather than white adipocytes.27
Importantly, tissues injected with fibroblasts carrying an empty vector lacked multilocular cells altogether (eg, Figure 3C
), indicating that the emergence of adipocytes soon after injection of BMP2-expressing cells is linked to bone morphogenesis. To confirm that the infiltrating multilocular cells were truly brown adipocytes, we tested for the expression of uncoupling protein-1 (UCP-1), a definitive marker of this cell type28,29
that uncouples the electron transport chain from generation of ATP and uses the energy for heat generation. UCP-1 expression was specifically associated with the multilocular cells interspersed among the muscle fibers of both NOD-SCID (Figure 3A)
and C57BL/6 mice (Figure 3B)
. Such cells were not observed in control mice (Figure 3C)
nor were they present in misty mice (Figure 3D)
, which do not produce brown adipose tissue.23
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If brown adipocytes truly generate a hypoxic environment, one would expect that the genes involved in energy metabolism, especially those of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, the component that consumes the most molecular oxygen, would be up-regulated. Accordingly, RNA was extracted from the injected quadriceps muscle (n = 4) on each of 7 days after injection of transduced MRC-5 cells. Figure 4A
presents the regulation of genes, derived by microarray analysis, involved in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain on the first 2 days after injection of BMP2-producing cells. The numbers are presented as a ratio of the amount of gene-specific RNA produced after injection of BMP2-producing cells to the amount of the same gene-specific RNA produced after injection of cells transduced with empty vector. There was a 42 ± 2-fold induction of phosphofructokinase on day 1. This enzyme converts fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-bisphosphate, a key step because of its irreversible nature in the glycolytic pathway from glucose to pyruvate that supplies acetyl-CoA to the citric acid cycle, which in turn supplies NADH to the electron transport chain. In addition, on day 2, there was an 11 ± 1.7-fold increase in NADH dehydrogenase 3, a component of complex I of the electron transport chain, responsible for pumping protons generated by glycolysis and the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space where ATP synthase converts ADP to ATP with consumption of molecular oxygen. On day 1, there were also significant increases in subunits c, g, and o of ATP synthase itself, as well as an increase in aquaporin 8, which pumps water from the mitochondria.
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, diagram the bioenergetics of oxygen consumption contrasting other cell types (Figure 4B)
with brown adipocytes (Figure 4C)
. Glycolysis and the citric acid cycle supply protons to the electron transport chain, which uses them to generate the proton motive force used to make either ATP, when the electron transport chain is coupled (Figure 4B)
, or heat (Figure 4C)
, when it is uncoupled from the conversion of molecular oxygen, obtained from the immediate extracellular environment via release from hemoglobin or myoglobin, to water. Brown adipocytes are well suited to deplete oxygen in the microenvironment because they are laden with mitochondria containing UCP-1 in addition to ATP synthase (Figure 4C)
. Brown Adipocytes Generate a Hypoxic Microenvironment
Because brown adipocytes contain abundant mitochondria, we reasoned that their increased consumption of oxygen might impose a hypoxic microenvironment conducive to the formation of a cartilaginous matrix.30
Thus, oxygen tension was assessed at 3 and 4 days after injection by injecting pimonidazole and examining tissues near the injection site for hypoxic areas, using an antibody (Hypoxyprobe monoclonal antibody) against pimonidazole. Adducts of this reagent form with thiol groups in proteins, peptides, and amino acids and hypoxia (pO2 < 10 mm Hg) is required for binding that is not dependent on the presence of specialized redox enzymes such as P450 nitroreductases. Furthermore, wide variations in NADH and NADPH levels do not change the oxygen dependence of binding. Figure 5Aa
shows large discrete areas of oxygen deficiency in tissue samples from mice receiving cells transduced with Ad5F35 BMP2 for 3 days, in contrast to uniformly normoxic tissues in mice injected with a control vector (Figure 5Ac)
. As a positive control, we assessed the growth plate in untreated C57BL/6 mice (Figure 5Ab)
. The hypoxic areas were not difficult to find when scanning slides and always corresponded to areas within the region of heterotopic bone formation and never elsewhere in the tissue. To clarify the origin of these cells, we performed dual labeling with antibodies against pimonidazole and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-
co-activator 1 (PGC-1), a transcriptional co-activator that regulates genes involved in energy metabolism.31
Importantly, interaction between PGC-1 and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor- (PPAR-) can activate specific gene expression associated with the conversion of preadipocytes to brown adipocytes.31
Figure 5A, d–f
, shows that the hypoxic cells present in muscle injected with BMP2-secreting cells expressed PCG-1 and therefore were likely newly differentiated brown adipocytes. On days 2 and 3 the hypoxic regions surrounded the brown adipocytes observed between muscle fibers (Figure 5Ba)
, again indicating the hypoxic nature of these cells. In addition, at later times (day 4), the hypoxic regions occupied a substantial amount of the area of heterotopic ossification (Figure 5Bb)
. In addition, there was a substantial proportion of the cells that expressed HIF1 (Figure 5Bc)
consistent with the substantial up-regulation of several HIF1-dependent proteins such as phosphofructokinase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, aldolase, and fructose biphosphatase 2 (Figure 4)
,32
as well as other pathways linked to HIF1 (E.O.-D., A.R.D., unpublished). These results indicate that the enhanced respiratory activity of brown adipocytes creates a hypoxic microenvironment most likely through the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation.33
This, in turn, would be expected to promote the differentiation of mesenchymal cells to chondrocytes, a necessary step in the formation of a cartilaginous matrix and hence mature bone.30
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If, indeed, brown adipocytes generate a hypoxic microenvironment, one would expect the development of this cell type to precede the generation of hypoxia. In addition, as oxygen is depleted in the local microenvironment, cells other than brown adipocytes (eg, those lacking UCP-1 expression) should also become hypoxic. To test this prediction, we co-stained sections from mice at 1, 2, 4, and 5 days after injection of BMP2-producing cells (Figure 6, a–d)
and injected with pimonidazole for 3 hours, using a rabbit antibody against UCP-1 (green color) and a mouse monoclonal antibody against Hypoxyprobe (red color). The results (Figure 6a)
show that UCP-1 is indeed expressed in the absence of hypoxia on day 1. On day 2, one observes some co-expression of UCP-1 with concomitant hypoxia in the same cell (yellow color, Figure 6b
) and a substantial amount of UCP-1 in the absence of hypoxia (green color, Figure 6b
). However, on days 4 and 5, one observes uniformly hypoxic cells in some regions of the section, either with (Figure 6, c and d
; yellow arrows) or without (Figure 6, c and d
; red arrows) co-expression of UCP-1.
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If brown adipocytes do in fact support the early formation of ectopic bone, injection of misty mice with BMP2-expressing cells should either fail to generate bone or perhaps stimulate aberrant bone formation through a compensatory mechanism. We therefore studied BMP2-treated misty and C57BL/6 mice at 3, 4, and 6 days after injection (n = 5 mice per time point). In contrast to findings in the latter group, there were no brown adipocytes interspersed among the muscle fibers in the injection site in misty mice on day 3 (Figure 7
, top). Unexpectedly, the white adipocytes pre-existing in the injection site in misty, but not those in C57BL/6, mice were drastically reduced in size on days 3, 4, and 6 (Figure 7)
. This result indicates that BMP2 stimulation had induced oxidative metabolism in these white adipocytes, indicated by their loss of fat globules (Figure 7)
, analogous to the conversion of white adipocytes to fat-oxidizing machines after treatment with leptin.34
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, compare c and e), whereas in misty mice the white fat cells were clearly hypoxic (Figure 8f)
. However, neither the white fat of C57BL/6 mice (Figure 8e)
nor the region of cell injection in misty mice (Figure 8d)
was hypoxic. We calculated the volumes of the hypoxic areas in both misty and C57BL/6 mice using histomorphometry (n = 3). The volume of the hypoxic region in misty mice was 359 ± 39 µm3 compared with 134 ± 21 µm3 in C57BL/6 mice (P = 0.002). Therefore, the misty mice had 2.7 times more hypoxic regions than the C57BL/6 mice.
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, presents the tomographic results with a statistical comparison of bone formation. The mean volume of mineralized tissue (heterotopic bone) in misty mice was 3.4-fold greater than that in C57BL/6 (Figure 9b
, P = 0.002). This result was predicted from the histological sections of heterotopic bone observed at 14 days from misty (Figure 9c
, top) and C57BL/6 (Figure 9c
, bottom) and confirmed by static histomorphometry an example of which is shown in Figure 9d
. The volume of osteoid was 132.6 ± 61.8 µm3 for the misty mice and 24.0 ± 9.9 µm3 for the C57BL/6 mice (n = 4, P 
0.001). Therefore, by this method the volume of osteoid was 5.5-fold greater in the misty mouse than in C57BL/6 mice. We assume that increased hypoxia induction in misty mouse described above leads to increased chondrogenesis that ultimately leads to increased bone formation.
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presents these data, which show that there were 3.5 times more adipocytes in the region surrounding the site of injection in misty compared with C57BL/6 mice.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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We used several criteria to identify brown adipocytes in our model of heterotopic ossification: 1) characteristic morphology (multiple lipid droplets and a high number of mitochondria in particular); 2) expression of the definitive brown adipocyte marker UCP-1; 3) the absence of UCP-1-positive cells in misty mice; and 4) expression of PGC-1, a PPAR--interacting protein expressed preferentially in brown compared with white adipocytes.31
The accumulation of brown adipocytes in tissue stimulated with BMP2 places these cells in a unique position to orchestrate heterotopic ossification through the regulation of oxygen tension in the local microenvironment. The depletion of tissue oxygen stores through uncoupled mitochondrial respiration would be expected to induce chondrocyte-specific gene expression in mesenchymal stem cells, leading to differentiation of the stem cells to mature chondrocytes.30
In animals lacking brown adipocytes, the volume of the bone formed in response to BMP2 stimulation was nearly triple that in animals with normal production of brown adipose tissue (Figure 9)
when evaluated by micro-CT and more than fivefold greater when evaluated by static histomorphometry. The quantitative discrepancy between micro-CT and histomorphometry has been observed before.36
Both methods of evaluation agree qualitatively, suggesting that an alternative cell may also be capable of inducing hypoxia. We propose that brown fat is preferentially used to generate hypoxic stress during heterotopic bone formation. If such cells are not available, white fat near the site of BMP2 synthesis is burned, analogous to the oxidative destruction of this tissue after treatment with leptin.34
This process creates large hypoxic areas (Figure 5)
as a microenvironment for cartilage formation. This hypothesis gains support from reports of a link between BMP expression and fatty acid metabolism in adipocytes.37
It also gains credence when one notes the close correlation between the amount of excess bone formed in mice lacking brown fat and the ratio of the white to brown adipocytes in the immediate area surrounding the site of injection (Table 1)
.
The relevancy of our model may extend beyond the formation of heterotopic bone in soft tissues. Fractures heal by a combination of intramembranous and endochondral types of bone generation.38 Endochondral ossification in bone repair is very similar if not identical to the heterotopic ossification we describe; both processes include an initial stage of inflammation, followed by angiogenesis and the formation of cartilage, cartilage calcification, cartilage removal, bone formation, and ultimately bone remodeling.38 It is also know that BMPs are intimately involved in fracture healing.39 If brown adipocytes participate in fracture repair, as we suspect, our heterotopic ossification model should prove useful in devising methods to enhance new bone formation at the fracture site.
BMPs can drive the differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells toward the adipocyte, chondrocyte, or osteoblast lineage, depending on the transcriptional mechanisms that are activated.40
Thus, the very early appearance of brown adipocytes in our model probably stems from up-regulation of the PPAR- pathway by BMP2, followed by norepinephrine-driven expression of PPAR- co-activator 1, which seems to mediate the conversion of these cells to brown adipocytes.31
This would imply an initial effect of BMP2 on sympathetic neurons or their progenitors, similar to that described41
on neural crest progenitors to induce their differentiation. Indeed, BMP receptors are present on sympathetic neurons,42,43
and BMP produced in the dorsal aorta is sufficient to induce noradrenergic differentiation,44,45
whereas its blockade by noggin prevents the expression of noradrenergic and pan-neuronal properties.46
BMP2 can also elicit the production of neurotrophic factors such as glial-derived neurotrophic factor,47
which could cause neurite outgrowth into the injected area.48
On the other hand, BMP could independently induce adipocyte differentiation in our model, and there is precedent for BMP involvement in the induction of adipogenesis.49,50
Other targets of BMP2 action in our heterotopic ossification model are less clear, although several BMP-activated signaling pathways are critical in the regulation of chondrogenesis.51 Early in this process, BMPs are required to maintain Sox gene expression and continuous BMP stimulation is needed to complete chondrocyte differentiation.52-54 These proteins exert their essential regulatory roles via effects on the Indian hedgehog/parathyroid hormone-related protein and fibroblast growth factor pathways.51 The precise contributions of BMP2 to the signaling cascades that drive heterotopic ossification in our model remain to be determined.
The term heterotopic ossification refers to a number of pathological processes that have the formation of bone in soft tissue as an end point.1 Although the exact relationship of our model to each category of heterotopic bone formation is uncertain, we suggest that BMP-induced generation of brown adipocytes may be a common event in these diverse processes. Thus, further studies are planned to test whether elimination of hypoxic stress would block bone formation in muscle. This approach to therapy would be analogous to the use of anti-angiogenic agents to inhibit new blood vessel formation to slow or inhibit the subsequent production of heterotopic bone6
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Acknowledgements |
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Footnotes |
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Supported by the Department of Defense (grants PR0 33166 to E.O.D. and PR0 33169 to A.R.D.).
Accepted for publication October 24, 2006.
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